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THE 



AMERICAN WATCHMAKER 



AND JEWELER 



AN ENCYCLOPEDIA 
FOR THE HOROLOGIST, JEWELER, GOLD AND SILVERSMITH 



CONTAINING HUNDREDS OF PRIVATE 
RECEIPTS AND FORMULAS COMPILED FROM THE BEST 
AND MOST RELIABLE SOURCES. COMPLETE DIRECTIONS FOR USING 
ALL THE LATEST TOOLS, ATTACHMENTS AND DEVICES 

FOR WATCHMAKERS AND JEWELERS 



/ 

BY HENRY G. ABBOTT 



ILLUSTRATED WITH 288 ENGRAVINGS 



CHICAGO: ^ \ / 



Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co., Publishers. ^^ 

1892. 



Copyrighted 1890, by 
Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co. 



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PREFACE, 



FOR some years there has been a demand among the watchmaking- 
and jeweh-j fraternity in this country, for a book that would fur- 
nish them some information in regard to tools of American manu- 
facture, drawings and descriptions of the various escapements, defini- 
tions of various words and phrases used in the trade, etc. There are upon 
the market several very valuable books, compiled by English, French 
and German authors, but these works are silent in regard to tools and 
methods distinctively American. Most of these works devote consider- 
able space to the use of the bow lathe, the turns and other devices long 
ago relegated to the shades of obscurity by the American w-atchmaker. 
The ambitious workinan is always in search of knowledge, in search 
of new ideas, new tools and new methods. Patient study, constant prac- 
tice and ambition are requisite to become proficient in any art. The 
demand for skilled workmen is constantly increasing, and a person wish- 
ing to thoroughly master any art, must be to a certain extent capable of 
self-instruction. To be a proficient in any art a man must not be deft of 
touch alone, but the head must also play its part. In America the watch- 
maker is somewhat differently situated from his European brothers. In 
the country towns he is often called upon not only to clean and repair 
watches and clocks, but is often asked to put in order or repair music 
boxes, fishing reels, musical instruments, sewing machines, elec- 
tric motors, statuettes, pipes, and a variety of other articles too numer- 
ous to mention. It would be next to impossible for the ordinary work- 
man to remember all the various instructions, hints, pointers, formulas 
and recipes which he has read or heard about, and the author believes 
such persons will welcome this volume and that it will prove valuable 
for reference in cases of emergency. This, the third edition, has been 
revised and enlarged so that it contains at least one-half more matter 
than former editions and nearly one hundred more illustrations, many of 
which were made especially for this work. In this work the compiler 
makes no claims of originality. The best authorities have been dra\\ n 
upon for the information here given. 



THE AMERICAN 

WATCHMAKER AND JEWELER 



AN ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR THE 
HOROLOGIST, JEWELER, GOLD AND SILVERSMITH 



ABBEY. To him or his assistant, Graham, is attributed the invention 
of the cylinder escapement. 

ACCELERATION. This term in Iiorology is applied to the steady 
gaining in the rate of a time-keeper, particularly to be observed in new 
movements. It is positively known to occur in marine chronometers, 
watches as a rule not being subjected to tests sufficiently accurate to 
detect it in them. There is but little doubt that the hairspring is the 
cause of acceleration. Old movements after being re-sprung sometimes 
accelerate, particularly if the overcoil is manipulated too much when 
timing. Britten declares that there is little doubt that the tendency of 
springs is to increase slightly in strength for some time after they are 
subjected to continuous action, just as bells are found to alter a little in 
tone after use. Sometimes the very best chronometers, after going for 
a year or two, will accelerate by about three or four seconds per day. 
M. Jacob attributes this acceleration to the fact that chronometers are 
exposed to heat oftener and for longer periods than to cold, and since the 
balance is thus more frequently contracted it follows that after a time 
the segments will not return exactly to their initial positions. There 
will therefore be necessarily a slight acceleration of the rate. 

Dent believed that it was due to the combination of oxygen of the air 
v/ith the steel hairspring, so that after a time its rigidity is increased. 

M. Villarceau attributed it to the influence of the escapement and that 
it arises from the fact that the impact communicating the impulse occurs 
before the balance has arrived at its neutral position. 

M. H. Robert attributes it to the fact that the resistance opposed by oil 
at the pivots of the escape wheel differs from that at the pivots of the 
balance. 

Flat springs do not accelerate as much as those having overcoils. 
Palladium springs accelerate very much less than hardened steel springs. 



Acids and Salts. 6 

ACIDS AND SALTS. Acids and salts of various kinds are em- 
ployed by the watchmaker and jeweler, but he should never keep them 
in proximity to his tools or work, or he may have cause to regret it some 
day. It is advisable to keep them in glass stoppered bottles. 

Acetic Acid of commerce varies considerably in concentration and ife 
usually of a very light yellow color. It is very acid in taste and has a 
pungent odor by which it is easily distinguished. 

Alum is soinetimes used for removing the stains left by soldering, in 
lieu of acids, and is also used in removing broken screws from brass 
plates by immersing the plates in a strong solution of alum and water, 
the best results being obtained from a boiling solution, which rapidly 
converts the steel into rust, while it does not attack the brass plate. 

Ammonia, or spirits of hartshorn, of commerce is sold usually in the 
forinofa colorless liquid known as aqua ammonia, which is obtained 
from the aminonical liquor which results from the distillation of coal 
for the manufacture of gas. Its properties are somewhat similar to those 
of soda, potash and other alkalies. It will restore the blue color of litmus 
paper which has been reddened by acid, and counteracts the strongest 
acids. 

Ammonia Phosphate of commerce is a salt produced by the exact 
saturation of phosphoric acid with ammonia. It is very useful in baths 
for producing thick platinum deposits. 

Ammonium Sulphide of commerce is a liquid produced by satu- 
rating ammonia with sulphuretted hydrogen gas. In combination with 
metals it rapidly forins sulphides and is used on silver for producing the 
black coating sometimes called oxidation, and is employed for bronzing 
metals. 

Aqua Regia is a combination of i part nitric acid and 2 parts hy- 
drochloric acid, and its strength greatly depends upon the degrees of 
strength of the two ingredients that form it, which vary in commerce 
considerably. It is the strongest solvent of metals, and the only one 
that dissolves gold and platinum. 

Boric Acid is employed for decomposing the subsalts deposited 
in cyanide electro-baths, and for increasing the whiteness of silver 
alloys. 

Borax of commerce is usually met with in the form of colorless crys- 
tals. When heated by ineans of the blow-pipe these crystals expand and 
finally run into a kind of glass which dissolves nearly all the metallic 
oxides, and on this account it is used as a flux in hard soldering. 
It is also used in assaying with blow-pipe, for destroying the sub-salts 
of silver formed in electro-plating baths, and for restoring the shade 
of defective gilding baths. 



7 Acids and Salts. 

Chromic Acid is generally made by a combination of bichromate of 
potash and sulphuric acid. It is used to excite galvanic batteries and 
as an etching agent. 

Hydrochloric Acid of commerce, is a mixture of the acid proper 
and water. The acid proper is gaseous, and is therefore combined with 
water. It is a by-product in the manufacture of soda. 

Hydrofluoric Acid will dissolve nearly all the metals except sil 
ver, platinum and lead. It is a dangerous acid to handle unless you are 
thoroughly acquainted with its nature. It is used for etching on cop- 
per, enamel and glass. 

Magnesia Calcine is calcined carbonate of magnesia, and is sold in 
commerce in the form of a white powder. 

Nitric Acid, or aqua fortis, may be purchased of various colors 
and degrees of strength, and it dissolves most of the metals. As it is 
frequently used in a dilute state, it is well to remember that water 

SHOULD NEVER BE POURED INTO THE ACID, but rather POUR THE 

ACID IN A SMALL STREAM INTO THE WATER, stirring meantime with a 
glass rod. As this and other acids heat rapidly, it is well to place the 
vessel, while mixing, in another vessel filled with water. 

Oxalic Acid of commerce is sold in the form of white crystals, and 
is very poisonous. 

Potassium Cyanide of commerce is a colorless salt having an 
odor somewhat sitnilar to prussic acid. It is highlj^ poisonous. Solu- 
tions of potassium cyanide will dissolve metallic silver. It is used in 
electro-plating, and the plating is more or less effective, depending on 
the power of the solution of the salts to dissolve the cyanides of gold 
and silver. 

Potassium Bicarbonate of commerce is a colorless crystal. This 
salt is soluble in tepid water. 

Potassium Bitartrate, or tartar, is a salt produced from the crys- 
tals found on the sides of wine casks. When purified it is known as 
cream of tartar. It is acid, and is slightly soluble in water. 

Potassium Hydroxide, or caustic potash of commerce, is sold in 
the form of small sticks, which must be kept in air-tight bottles. 

Potassium Nitrate, or saltpetre, is used as a flux, and as it readily 
yields a portion of its oxygen to other bodies, it is used extensi\ely for 
oxydizing metals. 

Potassium Sulphide is a salt which in commerce is sold in brov»n 
masses, and is sometimes called liver of sulphur. 



Adams. 8 

Prussic Acid, or hydrocyanic acid, should be used with the greatest 
care, as it is one of the most deadly substances used in the art. It may 
be distinguished by ics smell, which resembles that of peach pits, apple 
seeds or bitter almonds, and, in fact, these substances owe their peculiar 
odor to the presence, in small quantities, of this acid. It is used for de- 
composing the alkaline carbonates formed in baths with cyanide of 
potassium, and for maintaining the strength of the hypophosphite of 
gold in immersion baths. 

Sal-Ammoniac, or Chloride of Ammonium, is used as a flux in 
soldering tin and other metals in the form of a paste obtained by 
combininc^ with sweet oil. It is also used in battery solutions in electro- 
plating. 

Sodium Bicarbonate corresponds in properties very closely with 
potassium bicarbonate. 

Sodmm Hydroxide of commerce is solid, in thick white masses, 
and is readily converted into carbonate of soda by the absorption of car- 
bonic acid from the air. 

Sodium Pyrophosphate of commerce is sold in the form of a 
white salt which is soluble in water. 

Sodium Phosphate of commerce is usually sold in the form ot 
crystals. It is used in hot electro-gilding baths. 

Sulphuric Acid or oil of vitriol is a colorless, odorless fluid. Like 
nitric acid, it should be carefully mixed when diluting with water, and 
the same water-bath used. 

Tartaric Acid of commerce is usually sold in the form of crystals 
and also in the form of a powder. Solutions of this acid should only be 
prepared for immediate use, as it readily decomposes. 

ADAMS, J. C. Born in Preble, N. Y., October 7, 1834. As a 
watch factory organizer he has probably had more experience than any 
living man. He served a five years' apprenticeship 
to John H. Atkins, an old Liverpool watchmaker, 
then located in Elgin, 111. After serving his appren- 
ticeship he worked for two years as watchmaker 
for I. E. Spalding, Janesville, Wis. He was after- 
^ wards engaged in business in Elgin, the firm being 
known as G. B. & J. C. Adams. The partnership 
was dissolved at the end of two years, and he 
accepted a position in the watch department of Hoard 
& Hoes, Chicago. In 1S61 he had the management 
J. C. Adams. of the watch department of W. H. &. C. Miller, the 
largest jewelry store in Chicago. In 1862 he was appointed time-keeper 
for the various roads centering in Chicago. In 1864, together with 




9 Adendum Circle. 

Charles S. Moseley and P. S. Bartlett, he organized the Elgin Watch 
Company. In 1869, together with Paul Cornell, he organized the Cornell 
Watch Company of Grand Crossing, 111. One of the movements 
made by this company bore his name. In 1869, together with Spring- 
field capitalists, he organized the Illinois Watch Company. In 1874 ^e 
organized the Adams & Perry Manufacturing Company. In 1883 and 
18S4 he was in the employ of the Independent Watch Company of 
Fredonia, N, Y. In 1885 he organized the Peoria Watch Company of 
Peoria, 111., and remained with that company until April 14, 1888. He 
is the inventor and patentee of the Adams System of Time Records, now 
used by nearly every western railroad. 

ADENDUM CIRCLE. The distance or space between the pitch 
line of a gear and the circle touching the ends of the teeth. 

ADHESION. Adhesion is the mutual attraction which two bodies 
have for one another, as attraction between the liquid and the substance 
of the vessel containing it. See also Oil and Capillarity. Saunier says 
that the working parts in contact with each other should separate by 
sliding action and not by a sudden drawing asunder in a direction per- 
pendicular to their touching surfaces, as such an action would involve 
the inconvenience of variable resistances, depending on the greater or 
less adhesion or cohesion of these surfaces. The amount of adhesion 
between clean surfaces is difficult to determine and it is impossible to 
give its exact proportion. In the case of oiled surfaces the resistance 
due to adhesion is proportional to the extent of the surfaces in contact. 

ADJUSTING ROD. A device for testing the pull of the main- 
spring. 

ADJUSTMENT. The manipulation of the balance, its spring and 
staff, for the purpose of improving the time-keeping qualities of a watch. 
Three adjustments are usually employed for this purpose, viz. : positions, 
isojchronism and compensation. 

Adjustment to Positions. The manipulation of the hairspring 
and balance so tliat the movement keeps time in the different positions. 
In ordinary watches two positions are taken, viz.; pendant up or vertical 
and dial up or horizontal. In the finer grade of work adjustments are 
made in the quarters, that is, with 3 up and 9 up. This adjustment is a 
delicate and often a difficult operation and it is only by constant study 
and application that the watchmaker can hope for success. Several 
excellent essays on this subject are in print, among which may be men- 
tioned Modern Horology in Theory and Practice and the Watchmaker's 
Hand Book by Claudius Saunier, the Watch and Clockmaker's Hand 
Book by F.J. Britten, and Adjustments to Positions, Isochronism and 
Compensation, published by G. K. Hazlitt & Co., Chicago. Isochronal 



Adjustment. 10 

adjustments are thoroughly reviewed in an excellent little work by 
Moritz Immisch entitled Prize Essay on the Balance Spring. The object 
of timing or adjusting to positions is to ascertain how far a change of 
position modifies the compensation and isochronism and to verify the 
poising of the balance. Saunier says the balance can not possibly be 
accurately poised in all positions if the pivots and pivot holes are not 
perfectly round, and the poising will be modified with a change of tem- 
perature if the two arms do not act identically; as will be the case when 
the metals are not homogeneous, when one or both arms have been 
strained owing to want of skill on the part of the workman, or careless 
work, etc. After accurately timing in a vertical position with XII. up, 
make it go for twelve hours with VI. up and the same number of hours 
with III. and IX. up. Observe with care both the rates and the ampli- 
tude of the arcs and note them down. Assuming the pivots and pivot 
holes to be perfectly round and in good condition and that the poising of 
the balance has been previously tested with care by the ordinary means, 
if the variations in the four positions are slight the poising may be 
regarded as satisfactory. As a general, but not invariable rule, a loss in 
one position on the rate observed in the inverse position may 
be taken to indicate that the weight of the upper part of the 
balance is excessive when it does not vibrate through an arc of 
360° or the lower part if the arcs of inotion exceed this amount. Inde- 
pendently of the balance this loss inay be occasioned by excessive fric- 
tion of the pivots due to a too great pressure owing to the caliper being 
faulty, or to a distortion of the hairspring causing its center of gravity 
to lie out of the axis of the balance. If these influences become at all 
considerable their correction will be beyond the power of the isochronal 
hairspring, and indeed it will be impossible to counteract them. Changes 
in the rate on changing from the vertical to the horizontal position may 
also arise from the following causes: i. The action of the escape wheel, 
which is different according as it tends to raise the balance staff or to 
force it laterally. 2. A hairspring that starts to one side and so displaces 
its center of gravity, a balance that is not well poised, pivots or pivot 
holes that are not perfectly round, faults which although of but little 
importance in the vertical position of the balance staff become serious 
when it is horizontal. 3. The more marked portion of the friction of 
the pivots may take place against substances of different degrees of hard- 
ness in the two cases, the end stones being frequently harder than the 
jewels. Saunier further says that satisfactory results will be obtained in 
most cases by employing the following methods, either separately or two 
or more together, according to the results of experiments or the rates, 
the experience and the judgment of the workman: 

I. Flatten slightly the ends of the balance pivots so as to increase 
their radii of friction; when the watch is lying flat the friction will thus 
become greater. 



11 Adjustment. 

2. Let the thickness of the jewel holes be no more than is abso- 
lutely necessary. It is sometimes thought sufficient to chamfer the 
jewel hole so as to reduce the surface on which friction occurs; but this 
does not quite meet the case since an appreciable column of oil is main- 
tained against the pivot. 

3. Reduce the diameters of the pivots, of course changing the jewel 
holes. The resistance due to friction, when the watch is vertical, increases 
rapidly with any increase in the diameters of pivots. 

4. Let the hairspring be accurately centered, or it must usually be so 
placed that the lateral pull tend* to lift the balance when the watch is 
hanging v^ertical. In this and the next succeeding case it would some- 
times be advantageous to be able to change the point at which it is fixed, 
but this is seldom possible. 

5. Replace the hair-spring by one that is honger or shorter but of 
the same strength ; this is with a view to increase or diminish the 
lateral pressure in accordance with the explanation given in the last 
paragraph. 

6. Set the escapement so that the strongest impulse corresponds with 
the greatest resistance of the balance. 

7. Replace the balance. A balance that is much too heavy renders 
the timing for positions impossible. 

8. Lastly, when these methods are inapplicable or insufficient there 
only remains the very common practice of throwing the balance out of 
poise. 

Adjustment to Isochronism. The manipulation of the hair- 
spring so that the long and short arcs of the balance are performed in the 
same time. The theory of isochronism advanced by Dr. Robert Hooke 
and more commonly known as Hooke's law, " as the tension so is the 
force," is an axiom in mechanics with which everybody is, or should be 
familiar. This law has like nearly all others its exceptions, and it 
is only partially true as applied to hair-springs of watches; "otherwise,' 
says Glasgow, "every spring would be isochronous." Pierre Le Roy 
says that there is in every spring, of a sufficient extent, a certain length 
where all the vibrations, long or short, great or small, are isochronous, 
and that this length being secured, if you shorten the spring the great 
vibrations will be quicker than the small ones; if, on the contrary, it is 
lengthened, the small arcs will be performed in less time than the great 
ones. Glasgow says that a hair-spring of whatever form to be isochron- 
ous must satisfy the following conditions: Its center of gravity must 
always be on the axis of the balance, and it must expand and contract in 
the vibrations concentrically with that axis. When these conditions are 
secured in a properly made spring it will possess the quality of isochron- 
ism, that is, its force will increase in proportion to the tension, and it 
wHl not exert any lateral pressure on the pivots. 



Adjustment Heater. 



12 



Britten says, it should be remembered that if the vibrations of a balance 
are to be isochronous the iinpulse must be delivered in the middle of its 
vibration, and that therefore no spring will be satisfactory if the escape- 
ment is defective in this particular. 

The recognized authorities conflict considerably in their various theo- 
ries in regard to adjustment to isochronism and particularly in regard to 
the length of spring. Immisch says that mere length has nothing to do 
with isochronism. Glasgow contends that length has everything to do 
with it, and that a spring too short, whatever its form, would make the 
short arcs of the balance vibration be performed in a less time than the 
long arcs, and a spring too long would have just the contrary effect. 
Charles Frodsham advanced the theory that every length of spring has 
its isochronous point. Britten declares the length is all important; that 
a good length of spring for one variety of escapement is entirely unfitted 
for another variety. Saunier says that the discussion of the question 
whether short springs are preferable to long ones is a mere waste of 

time and can result in no 
good. In horology every- 
thing must be relative. 
Whatever be the escape- 
ment under considera- 
tion, it requires neither 
a long nor a short hair- 
spring, but one that is 
suited to its nature and 
mode of action, that is to 
say, the lengMi must bear 
a definite relation to the 
extent of the arcs of 
vibration, etc. 

Owing to the conflict 
of opinion it is advisable 
that the student read the 
various arguments set 
forth in the works re- 
ferred to above and form 
his own conclusions. 

f I 111 IBP^^y 

mP:im. # Jjll o • ^ l^^P ADJUSTMENT 

^ HEATER. The Simp- 

son heater, shown in 
Fig. 2, will be found 
invaluable when adjust- 
ing movements to temperature. The variation of temperature in this 
heater ic one and one-half degrees in twenty-four hours. It is designed 




Fig. 2. 



13 



Alarm. 




to be heated by gas, the cost of heating being but about three cents 
in twenty-four hours. A small lainp can be used if the watchmaker 
has no gas at command. 

ALARM. The mechanism attached to a timepiece by which at any 
desired time a hammer strikes rapidly on a bell for several seconds. 
Generally a weight or spring actuates an escape wheel, to the pallet staff 
of which a hammer is fixed to act on a bell. The alarm is usually setoff 
by a wire attached to the hour wheel lifting a detent that stops the escape 
wheel. 

ALCOHOL OR BENZINE CUP. The watchmaker should 
keep the alcohol and benzine on his bench in a glass 
cup having a tight fitting cover to prevent evapora- 
tion and contamination with dust. It also adds to 
the appearance of his bench and is a great improve- 
ment over an old saucer and bottle. The cup shown 
in Fig. 3 has a ground glass cover or stopper that 
fits tightly into the neck of the cup. 

Fig. 3. ALCOHOL LAMP. The Clark patent simplicity 

lamp shown in Fig. 4 is a favorite one with American watchmakers. 
It has nine facets on the font that it may readily be adjusted to any 
required position. The wicks of alcohol lamps 
should not be too tight, and the interior and 
exterior of the font should be kept free from dirt. 
The Clark lamp should not be filled more than 
one-third full. The wick should be removed when 
it gets so short that it fails to reach well down into 
the alcohol. 

ALL OR NOTHING PIECE. That part of 
a repeating watch that keeps the quarter rack off Fig. 4. 

the snail until the slide in the band of the case is pushed around. The 
lifting piece of the hour hammer is kept free from the twelve-toothed 
ratchet, while the quarter rack is locked, so that the hours cannot be 
struck until the quarter rack has fallen. It is sometimes called the 
hooking spring. It was invented by Julien Le Roy. 

ALLOY. A compound of two or more metals. It is usual to melt 
the less fusible metal first and add the more fusible. 

Alloys for Compensation Balances. Breguet used for his 
compensation balances the following alloy: Silver, two parts, by weight; 
copper, two parts; zinc, one part. First melt the silver and throw in the 
zinc, reduced to small pieces, stirring the metals and leaving it on the 
fire for as short a time as possible to prevent the volatilization of the 
latter metal; then pour it out and let it get cold. Melt the copper and 




Alloys. 14 

add the cold alloy, stirring the three together until intimately mixed. 
Pour out, cut into pieces, and smelt anew, to obtain a perfect incorpora- 
tion. Be careful, however, to leave the alloy as short a time as possible 
over the fire, because the zinc dissipates easily. This alloy is hard, 
elastic, very ductile, and quickly smelts in the furnace. It does not stand 
much hammering. 

Alloy for Composition Files. These files, which are frequently 
used by watchmakers and other metal workers, for grinding and polish- 
ing, and the color of which resembles silver, are composed of S parts 
copper, 2 parts tin, i part zinc, i part lead. They are cast in forms and 
treated upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked 
with difficulty with the file. 

Aluminium Alloys. Aluminium is alloyed with mnny metals, 
but the most important are those with copper. Lange & Sons have 
obtained a patent in the United States for an alloy consisting of ninety- 
five parts of aluminium and five of copper, which is malleable and is 
used for clock springs. An alloy of ten parts of aluminium and ninety 
of copper is hard but nevertheless ductile. It takes a high polish and 
somewhat resembles gold. 

Aluminium Bronze. This alloy contains from 6 to lo per cent, 
of aluminium, and is prepared by fusing chemically-pure copper with 
aluminium. The standard bronze in use consists of ninety parts of 
copper to ten of aluminium. It gives sharp castings, is easier to work 
than steel, can be engraved, rolled into sheets or drawn into wire and 
when exposed to the air suffers less change than cast iron, steel, silver 
or brass. It can be soldered only with an aluminium alloy. 

Aluminium Silver. Aluminium and silver are easily alloyed and 
these alloys are more easily worked than silver although harder. An 
alloy of ninety seven parts aluminium and three of silver is not affected 
by ammonium hydrosulphide and has a beautiful color. An alloy of 
ninety-five parts of aluminium and five of silver is white, elastic and 
hard. It is used for making blades of desert and fruit knives. 

Aluminium Gold. One part of aluminium to 99 of gold gives a 
metal the color of green gold, very hard but not ductile. An alloy of 5 
parts of aluminium to 95 parts of gold gives an alloy that is nearly as 
brittle as glass. An alloy of 10 parts of aluminium to 90 parts of gold 
is white, crystalline and brittle. An imitation of gold, used as a sub- 
stitute for the precious metal in cheap jewelry, is made by fusing 
together 5 to J ^^ parts of aluminium, 90 to 100 parts of copper and 2^ 
of gold. The color of this alloy resembles gold so closely as to almost 
defy detection. 



15 



Alloys. 



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OS to OlCD S? 

O -> CO rf^ to O i_i 

iocooTb>-:j^-3b500c;»oi-cjt-»cccooc;ic;T 

05>-^OO0it0CTC0O<,0OOl0OC0OO-:J0T 



OS 



p 
oc 

00 



Copper, 



Antimony 



Iron. 



6D 

O 



Platinum. 



o o 
o o 



Nickel. 



Black Cobalt- 
ic Oxide. 



CI , 
or ; 
o 



63 JO 

O Cn 



Manganese. 



Cadmium. 



Alloys. 16 

Alloys of Gold used by Jewelers. 



COLOR. 


GOLD. 

250 
500 
81 K) 
857 
725 
7.^0 
750 
746 
666 
750 
600 
583 
583 
666 
750 
583 
666 


SILVER. 


COPPER. 


CADMIUM. 


STEEL. 


Blue 








250 


Blue 








2.50 


Gray 








2U0 


Gray 

Gray 

Green . 


86 
275 
125 
166 
114 

67 
104 
200 

42 
250 
194 
146 
125 
333 






.57 










125 

84 
43 




Green 






Green.. 


97 
268 
146 
200 
375 
167 
139 
104 
292 




Red 




Red 






Red, Pale 






Red, Very - 






Yellow..-.. - 






Yellow 






Yellow. 






Yellow, Dark... 






Yellow, Pale 















The alloys of gold should not be overheated and ought to be poured 
immediately after the proper fusion has taken place. The mixture 
should be well stirred from time to time after it has commenced to melt, 
using a cherry red iron rod, or a stick of very dry poplar or other slow- 
burning wood. This serves two purposes; it makes the metal 
homogeneous in its composition and it enables the operator to 
judge by the feeling when the mass is thoroughlv melted. As 
long as the metal feels curdy or cloggy, it is unfit to pour; when the 
stirred mass feels thin and watery it should be thoroughly agitated, 
fresh charcoal added, and allowed to stand for a ininute, then poured. 

In melting silver alloys, great care and strict attention to the points 
given below are necessary in order to secure homogeneous alloys of the 
proportions required. Especialh- is this the case when the alloys con- 
tain the more readily oxidizable metals, such as zinc and tin. The 
weighing of the metals, the arrangement of thern in the crucible, the 
management during the time they are in the furnace, all are points 
requiring steady care and constant attention to produce accurate results. 

When the alloy consists only of copper and silver they should both 
be put in the crucible before putting it in the furnace. Put the copper 
at the bottom and the silver over it, as copper has the highest melting 
point and the heat is greatest at the bottom ; then, too, the silver being 
the heaviest, will descend through the copper when melting, thus produc- 
ing a more perfect mixing than when tlie copper is placed on the top. 

Alloys Resembling Silver. The following alloys have a close resem- 
blance to silver: Minargent is composed of loo parts copper; 70 nickel; 
1 aluminium and 5 of tungstate of iron. Trabak metal is composed of 
tin 87.5, nickel 5.5, antimony 5 and bismuth 2. Warne metal is com- 
posed of tin 10, bismuth 7, nickel 7 and cobalt 3. 



17 Alloys, 

Aluminium Zinc. Alloys of aluminium and zinc are very hard 
and lake a beautilul polish. An alloy of 97 parts of aluminium and 3 of 
zinc gives a result that is as white as the pure metal, harder than alu- 
minium and very ductile. 

Artificial Gold. A metallic alloy, at present very extensively used 
in trance as a bubbtitule for gold is composed of: Pure copper, 100 
parts- zinc, or preferably tin, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal-ammoniac, 
3 to 6 parts; quicklime, }i part; tartar of commerce, 9 parts, are mixed 
as follows: The copper is lirst melted, and the magnesia, sal-ammoniac, 
lime and tartar are then added separately and by degrees, in the form of 
powder; the whole is now briskly stirred for about one-half hour, so as 
to mix thoroughly, and then the zinc is added in small grains by throw- 
ing it on the surface and stirring until it is entirely fused; the crucible is 
then covered and fusion is maintained for about 35 minutes. The sur- 
face is then skimmed and the alloy ready for coating. It has a fine 
grain, is malleable, and takes a splendid polish. It does not corrode 
readily, and is an excellent substitute for gold for many purposes. When 
tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored by a little acidulated water. 
If tin be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will be more brilliant. 

Bell Metal. An alloy of copper and tin, in proportions varying 
from 66 to 80 per cent, of copper and the balance of tin. 

Brass. An alloy consisting of about 65 parts of copper to 35 parts of 
zinc. This proportion is varied according to the uses to which the alloy 
is to be put. See Bronzing^ Plating and Coloring Metals. 

Brittania. This alloy as prepared by Koller consists of 85.72 parts 
of tin, 10.34 ofantimony, 0.78 of copper and 2.91 of zinc. 

Chrysorine. This alloy is sometimes used for watch cases and parts 
of the movement. In color it closely resembles 18 to 20 carat gold. It 
does not tarnish when exposed to the air and has a beautiful luster. It 
consists of 100 parts of copper and 50 of zinc. 

Fictitious Silver. No. 1: Silver, i oz. ; nickel, i oz., 11 dwts. ; 
copper, 2 oz. 9 dwts.; No. 2, silver 3 oz. ; nickel, i oz. 11 dwts.; copper, 
2 oz 9 dwts. ; spelter 10 dwts. 

Malleable Brass. A malleable brass is obtained by alloying 33 
parts of copper and 25 parts zinc ; the copper is first thrown into the pot, 
which is covered slightly and fused. As soon as the copper is smelted, 
the zinc, to be free from sulphur, is added, and cast into ingots. 

Aluminium. Aluminium, or aluminum, is an extremely light, duc- 
tile and malleable metal, which is rapidly coming into favor for many 
purposes since the great improvements in its manufacture and the conse- 
quent reduction in cost. It can now be purchased in quantities at ninety 



Amalgam. 18 

cents per pound, -which makes it nearlj as cheap as copper, when the 
great difference in weight of a cubic foot of the two metals is considered. 
It is silvery in appearance, melts at 1,300 degrees F,, has a specific 
gravity of 2.56 to 2.60, which is one-fourth the weight of silver, does not 
cxidize readily and resists most acids and alkalies, but is very easilv 
attacked by others, especially when heated, or when present during 
chemical reactions on other metals. It is three times as ductile as 
silver, and has 50 per cent, more tenacity or strength. Much nonsense 
has been written about this metal, such as that it is stronger than steel ; 
will not rust; is not attacked by acids, etc., all of which are untrue. It 
is readily attacked by many chlorides, such as common salt (chloride of 
sodium), etc., and by some of the organic acids, in which respect it 
resembles silver. In regard to the hardening, tempering, etc., of the pure 
metal, comparatively little is known at present; but it is probable that 
as its use becomes more common it will be greatly improved in these 
respects, as has been done with iron. At all events, it will have an 
extended trial in the fine arts and mechanics, and it will probably displace 

platinum and nickel in the various alloys to some extent, on account of 
the great difference in weight. One great difficulty remaining to be over- 
come is that of soldering. At present it can be soldered only by using an 
alloy of which aluminium forms a part. 

Aluminium forms alloys with many metals ; those with copper, silver 
and tin are largely employed for many purposes, and their use is rapidly 
extending. The most important are those of copper, with which alumin- 
ium easily unites. See Alloys. 

AMALGAM. A compound of mercury with another metal ; as an 
amalgam of tin. 

AMPLITUDE. The full extent or breadth. As applied to pendu- 
lums, the amplitude of a simple oscillation or vibration ; properly the dis- 
tance from the middle to the extremity of an oscillation, but the term is 
usually applied to the distance from one extremity of the swing to the 
other. 

ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT. The recoil escapements used in 
most house clocks. A variety of the lever escapement made with a very 
wide impulse pin, is also known as an anchor escapement. Authorities 
differ as to the inventor of the anchor escapement. Britten gives the 
credit of the invention to Dr. Hooke, whom he claims invented it in 
1675, while Saunier says that the first anchor escapement appears to 
have been invented in 1680, by Clement, a London clockmaker. 

Glasgow says: This escapement was the first step in the direction of 
securing isochronism in the vibrations of the pendulum, as it involved a 
longer pendulum, shorter arcs, a heavier pendulum bob and less motive 
power. Consequently this combination resulted in the pendulum being 



19 Anchor Escapement. 

less controlled by the escapement, and therefore less influenced by varia- 
tions in the impulse, although the escapement can not be considered 
detached in the sense that a dead-beat one is. 

In Clement's escapement, the entrance pallet was convex, and the 
exit pallet concave, and they were afterwards made flat, but in both cases 
they were found to cut away very fast, owing to the friction when the 



Fig. 5. 

recoil takes place; to prevent this, they were subsequently made both 
convex, as shown in the Fig. 6, which lessens the angle, and conse- 
quently the friction, at the recoils. 

There are still people, says Britten, who believe the recoil to be a 
better escapement than the dead-beat, mainly because the former 
requires a greater variation of the driving power to affect the extent of 
the vibration of the pendulum than the latter does. But the matter is 



Anchor Escapement. 



20 



beyond argument; the recoil can be cheaply made, and is a useful 
escapement, but is unquestionably inferior to the dead-beat for time- 
keeping. 

There is no rest or locking for the pallets, but directly the pendulum 
in its vibration allows a tooth, after giving impulse, to escape from the 
impulse face of one pallet, the course of the wheel is checked by the 




Fig. 6. 

impulse face of the other pallet receiving a tooth. The effect of this 
may be seen on looking at the drawing (Fig. 6), where the pendulum, 
traveling to the right, has allowed a tooth to fall on the left-hand pallet. 
The pendulum, however, still continues its swing to the right, and in 
consequence the pallet pushes the wheel back, thus causing the recoil 
which gives the name to the escapement. It is only after the pendulum 



21 Angular Gearing. 

•comes to rest and begins its excursion the other way that it gets any 
assistance from the wheel, and the difference between the forward motion 
of the wheel and its recoil forms the impulse. 

Setting out the Escapement. Draw a circle representing the escape 
wheel, which we assume to have thirty teeth, of which the anchor 
■embraces eight. Mark off the position of four teeth on each side 
of the center one, and draw radial lines which will represent the backs 
of the teeth. 

Space between one tooth and the next= 3_6^° = i2° ; and 8 spacess=96°. 
Then 9^" = equal 48° to be set off on each side of the center. 

The distance of the pallet staff center from the center of escape 
wheel = radius of wheel X 1.4. From the pallet staff center describe a 
circle whose radius= seven-tenths of the radius of escape wheel, that is, 
one-half the distance between the escape wheel and pallet staff centers. 
Tangents to this circle just touching the tips of the teeth already marked, 
as shown by dotted lines in the drawing, would then form the faces of 
the pallets if they were left flat. When a tooth has dropped off the right- 
hand pallet, which is the position of the escapement in the drawing, the 
amount of impulse is shown by the intersection of the other pallet in 
the wheel. The impulse, measured from the pallet staff center, is usu- 
ally from 3 to 4°. 

The pallet faces are generally curved full in the middle, as shown in 
Fig. 5. The object of curving the pallets is t© lessen the "pitting" which 
the wheel teeth make on the pallets. There will, however, be very 
little "pitting" if the wheels are made small and light, and there is not 
excessive drop to the escapement. 

The advantage of making the backs of the escape wheel teeth radial 
and the foresides curved, as shown in Fig. 5, is that if the pendulum gets 
excessive vibration the pallets butt against the roots of the teeth and 
the points are uninjured. 

There is another form of the recoil escapement often used in long- 
cased clocks, in which the anchor embraces ten teeth of the escape 
wheel, and the foresides of the teeth are radial. It is shown in Fig. 6. 
In other respects the construction is substantially the same as the one 
just described. 

ANGULAR GEARING. Toothed wheels of irregular outline, 

used in transmitting variable motion, as shown 
in Fig. 7. 




ANGULAR VELOCITY. The angle 
through which an arm turning on its axis is 
displaced in a unit of time. It is entirely 
independent of the length of this arm. The 
Fig. 7. approximate ratio of the angular velocities of 






Annealing. 



22 



the balance with the cylinder and (pocket) chronometer escapements 
in the same unit of time (one-fifth second when there are 18,000 
vibrations per hour), is about 270°: 360°. The velocity, properly so 
called, is the space transversed in a unit of time by the point under 
consideration (which in this case is taken on the circumference of gyra- 
tion). For a given angular movement we obtain the aproximate ratio 
of the velocities by multiplying each radius by the number of vibrations 
in a unit of time. — Sattnier. 

ANNEALING. The process of heating metals and then manipu- 
lating them in order to increase their ductility. Gold, silver, copper and 
brass are annealed by heating them to redness and then plunging them 
in water, while steel is annealed by heating and then allowing it to cool 
slowly. 

ANNULAR GEAR. A gear wheel in which the teeth are on the 
inside of an annulus or ring, while its pinion works within its pitch 
circle, turning in the same direction. 

ANODE. The positive pole of an electric current, that pole at 
which the current enters; opposed to cathode, the point at which it 
departs. 

ARBOR. An axle or spindle on which a wheel turns. 

ARC. Any given part of the circumference of a circle, or other curve. 

ARCOGRAPH. An instrument sometimes used by watchmakers^ 
for drawing a circular arc without the use of a central point. 

ARNOLD, JOHN. Born in Cornwall, England, in 1744, ^"d died at 
Eltham, England, in 1799. He was the inventor 
of the helical form of balance spring and a chrono- 
meter escapement. The English Government 
awarded him £1,320 for the superiority of his 
chronometers in 1799, and his son, who followed 
up the successes of his father, was awarded 
£1,680 in 1805. 



ASSAY. To subject an ore, alloy or metallic 
compound to chemical examination in order to 
jetermine the amount of a particular metal con- 
tained in it. 




John Arnold. 



AUXILIARY. See Balance. 

BALANCE. The wheel in a watch, clock or chronometer which i» 
kept in vibration by means of the escapement and which regulates the 
motion of the train. The size and weight of a balance are important 



23 Balance. 

factors in the time-keeping qualities of a watch, although the dimensions 
of a balance are not criteria of the time in which the balance will vibrate. 
The balance is to a pocket time-piece what the pendulum is to a clock; 
although there are two essential points of difference. The time of vibra- 
tion of a pendulum is unaffected by its mass, because every increase in 
that direction carries with it a proportional influence of gravity; but if 
we add to the mass of the balance we add nothing to the strength of 
the hairspring, but add to its load and therefore the vibrations become 
slower. Again, a pendulum of a given length, as long as it is kept at 
the same distance from the earth's center, will vibrate in the same time 
because the gravity is always the same; but the irregularity in the force 
of the hairspring produces a like result in the vibration of the balance. 
Britten says there are three factors upon which the time of the vibration 
of the balance depends: 

1. The weight, or rather the mass, of the balance.* 

2. The distance of its center of gyration from the center of motion, 
or to speak roughly, the diameter of the balance. From these two 
factors the moment of inertia may be deducted. 

3. The strength of the hair-spring, or more strictly its power to resist 
change of form. 

Balances are of two kinds, known as plain or uncut, and cut or com- 
pensation. The plain balance is only used in this country on the very 
cheapest variety of movements. The compensation balance is used on 
the better grades of watches. The plain balance is usually made of brass 
or steel, while the compensation balance is made of steel and brass com- 
bined. Some English makers use gold for plain balances, it being denser 
than steel and not liable to rust or become magnetized. The process of 
compensation balance making as carried on in our American factories is 
as follows: A steel disc, one eighth of an inch thick and five-eighths 
of an inch in diameter, is first punched from a sheet of metal. It is then 
centered and partially drilled through, the indentation serving as a guide 
in the operation to follow. A capsule of pure copper three-fourths of an 
inch in diameter is then made, and in the center of this capsule the steel 
disc is lightly secured. A ring of brass one-sixteenth of an inch in thick- 
ness is then made and placed between the copper capsule and the blank, 
and the whole is fused together. It is then faced upon both sides. It is 
then placed in a lathe and cut away in the center until a ring is formed 
of steel, which is lined or framed with brass. It then goes into the press, 
where two crescents are cut from it, leaving only the inner lining of the 
ring and the cross-bar of steel. The burr is then removed and the bal- 
ance is ready to be drilled and tapped for the balance screws. This 
method of making balances is known as the "capsule method." 

♦The mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in that body, and is the 
same irrespective of the distance of the body from the center of the earth. But its 
weight, which is mass X gravity, varies in different latitudes. 



Balance. 



24 



The Expansion and Contraction of Balances. The American 
Waltham Watch Co. use a simple little contrivance shown at Fig 9 for m- 
dicating the expansion and contraction of balances. It is composed of a 
steel disc, on one side of which a scale is etched and opposite the scale a 
hole is drilled and tapped to receive the screw that holds the balance. One 
of the screws of the balance to be tested is removed and the indicating 
needle is screwed in its place. The steel disc is held by means of a pair 
of sliding tongs over an alcohol lamp, or can be heated in any other 
way, and the expansion will be indi- 
cated by the movement of the needle 
on the scale. Fig. 10 illustrates the 
expansion and contraction of bal- 
ances. With an increase of tempera- 
ture the rim is bent inward, thus 
reducing the size of the balance. 
This is owing to the fact that brass 
expands more than steel, and in 
endeavoring to expand it bends the 
rim inward. The action is, of course, 
reversed by lowering the tempera- 
ture below normal. Some adjusters 
spin a balance close to the flame of a ^/g. <,. 

lamp before using, in order to subject it to a higher temperature than it is 
likely to meet in use. The balance is then placed upon a cold iron plate 
and afterward tested for poise. The balance is then trued, if found nee- 
essary, and the operation is repeated until it is found to be in poise after 
heating. Britten says that it has been demonstrated that the loss in 
heat from the weakening of the hair-spring is uniformly in proportion to 
the increase of temperature. The compensation balance, however, fails 
to meet the temperature error exactly, the rims expand a little too much 







Original Position of Rim. 



FiV/c 10. 

Position Under Extreme Cold. 



Position I'nder Extreme Heat. 



with decrease of temperature, and with increase of temperature the con- 
traction of the rims is insufficient, consequently a watch or chronometer 
can be correctly adjusted for temperature at two points only. Watclies 
are usuallv adjusted at about 50° and 85°. In this range there would be 
what is called a middle temperature error of about two seconds in 
twenty-four hours with a steel hair spring. The amount of the middle 



25 



Balance. 




temperature error cannot be absolutely predicated, for in low tempera- 
lures, when the balance is larger in diameter, the arc of vibration is less 
than in high temperatures when the balance is smaller, and consequently 
its time of vibration is affected by the isochronism or otherwise of 

the hair-spring. Advantage is sometimes 
taken of this circumstance to lessen the 
middle temperature error by leaving the 
piece fast in the short arcs. To avoid 
middle temperature error in marine chrono- 
meters various forms of compensation bal- 
ances have been devised, and numberless 
additions and auxiliaries have been attached 
Fig. 11. to the ordinary form of balance for the 

same purpose. Poole's auxiliary, shown in Fig. ii, and Molyneaux's, 
shown in Fig. 12, may be taken to represent the two principles on 
•which most auxiliaries are constructed. Poole's consists of a piece of 
brass attached to the fixed ends of the rim and carry- 
ing a regulating screw, the point of which checks 
the outward movement of the rim in low tempera- 
ture. Molyneaux's is attached to each end of the 
arm by a spring, the free ends of the rim acting on 
it in high temperatures only. Fig. 11 illustrates 
this auxiliary when the temperature has been raised. Fig. 12. 

its free ends, to which the adjusting screws are attached, having 
approached nearer the center of the balance, carrying with them the free 
ends of the auxiliary, so that the small projection no longer comes in 
contact with the short end of the balance rim, as it would in a tempera- 
ture of 55°. This auxiliary is made of steel. 




Sizes and Weights of Balances. The size and weight of the 
balance are two very important elements in the timing of a watch and 
especially in adjusting to positions. The rules governing the sizes and 
weights of balances, says Mr. Chas. Reiss, are of a complex nature, and 
though positive, are difficult of application on account of the impracti- 
cability of determining the value of the elements on which we have to 
base our calculations. These elements are the main-spring or motive 
power, the hairspring representing the force of gravity on the pendulum, 
momentum and friction. The relation of the motive power, or the main- 
spring, to the subject under discussion lies first in the necessary propor- 
tion bet\veen it and the amount of tension of the spring to be overcome, 
according to the extent and number of vibrations aimed at; and, second, 
to that of friction affecting the motion of the balance and incidental to 
it. In an 18,000 train the main-spring has to overcome resistance of the 
hairspring for 432,000 vibrations daily. The hairspring, having its force 
established by the relative force of the motive power, circumscribes the 



Balance. 26 

proportions of the mass called balance and is a co-agent for overcoming 
friction. 

Momentum overcomes some of the elastic force of the spring and 
friction. It is the force of a body in motion and is equal to the weight 
of the body multiplied by its velocity. Velocity in a balance is repre- 
sented by its circumference, a gtveti point in which \.ra.vQ\s ?i give7i distance 
in di given time. Weight is that contained in its rim. A balance is said 
to have more or less momentum, in proportion as it retains force im- 
parted to it by impulsion. If a watch has a balance with which it has 
been brought to time, and this is changed to one-half the size, it requires 
to be four tirries as heavy, because its weight is then only half the dis- 
tance from the center, and any given point in its circumference has only 
half the distance to travel. On the other hand, a balance twice the size, 
would have one-fourth the weight. In the first case the balance would 
have twice as much momentum as the original one, because if we multi- 
ply the weight by the velocity we have a product twice as great. In the 
latter case a like operation would give a product half as great as in the 
original balance. 

It follows that the smaller and heavier a balance the more momentum, 
and, vice versa, the less momentum it has, always on condition that the 
hairspring controls both equally. Friction, affecting the vibration of 
the balance, is that of the pivots on which it moves and that of the escape, 
ment. It is in proportion to the force with which two surfaces are 
pressed together and their area. In a balance, weight is synonymous 
with pressure. Area is represented by the size of its pivots and the 
thickness of the pivot holes. The first, pivot friction, is continuous and 
incidental and is overcome by combined forces, the motive power, the 
elasticity of the hair-spring, and the momentum of the balance. The 
latter, or escapement friction, is intermitting and is overcome by con- 
tending forces, the hair-spring and the momentum of the balance on one 
side and the motive power on the other. 

Having in our power, as shown above, to obtain the desired momen- 
tum of the balance by differing relative pressure and diameter, we can 
regulate pivot friction within certain limits and distribute the labor of 
overcoming it, among the co-operative forces, in such a manner that the 
proportions of such distributions shall not be disturbed during their 
(forces) increase or decrease. Incidental pivot friction is that caused by 
the unlocking on the impulse. The first causes retardation, the latter 
acceleration in the motion of the balance, regardless of isochronism. It 
is easy to comprehend that a heavy balance would, by its greater mo- 
mentum, unlock the escapement with less retardation than a light one; 
but, on the other hand, the acceleration by the impulse would be less 
also; and with a varying motive power a disturbing element would be 
introduced by a change in the relative proportions of these forces, the 
momentum of the balance decreasing or increasing faster than the motive 



27 Balance- 

power, constituting as it does relatively a more variable ibrce. In argu- 
ment the reverse of this might be advanced in regard to a balance which 
is too light. Without, however, entering further into the subject it is 
plain how the rate of a watch under such conditions might be affected 
after being apparently adjusted in stationary positions, by being used on 
a locomotive or under conditions where external disturbances should 
lessen the extent of vibration, and making the contact between the bal- 
ance and the escapement of less duration. 

The almost universal abandonment of watches with uniform motive 
power and the introduction of stem-winders with going barrels, invest 
the subject with special interest; and, as stated in the beginning, applying 
rules for defining these desirable proportions being impracticable, the 
only solution of the problem which remains to us is the study, by obser- 
vation of certain symptoms which do exist, to determine that which by 
other means cannot be done. During the progress of horology, sim- 
ilar difficulties had to be met in every kind of watch which happened ta 
be in use. The old Verge watch had its balance proportioned thus: that 
it could lie inside in the main-spring barrel, and the watch, when set 
going without a balance spring, would indicate, by the hand on the dial,, 
a progress of twenty-seven and one-half minutes during one hour run- 
ning. It was said that under these circumstances it would be least 
affected by inequalities of the motive power, and the verge would not be 
cut by the escape wheel. The balance in the Cylinder watch was to be 
sized according to the proportion of the train, each successive wheel to be 
one-half smaller than the preceding one, and the balance to be twice the 
size of the escape wheel, the weight to be determined by the equal run- 
ning of the watch during all the changes of an unequal motive power. 
The cutting of the steel pallets in Duplex watches or chronometers is 
caused more by too heavy balances than by any other defect in their 
parts. It might be well to note the following which is very important 
and too often neglected. That is the arrangement of the mainspring 
in the barrel so as to avoid coil friction The smallest advantage of the 
old Fusee watch was not the facility ot obtalnmg five turns of the fusee 
to three or three and one-half of the mainspring, but being enabled 
thereby to arrange the latter around a small arbor in such a manner 
that the coils never touched, insuring a smooth motive power and 
lessening the chances of breakage beyond estimation. 

Poising the Balance. In merely poising a balance for a cheap- 
movement there is no great difficulty, that is, putting it in equipoise 
sufficient for the reasonably good performance of the movement; but to 
well and thoroughly poise for a high grade of movement embraces 
means and methods not necessary in the first mentioned. In a cheap 
balance a high degree of accuracy is not expected, and so the manipula- 
tions are, in the poising, simple, provided all the parts are in condition. 



Balance. 



28 




to admit of poising. The following will be about all the conditions and 
means used generally : In the outset the balance should be in poise 
without its staff, and this is approximated before the etafE is in by putting 
into the staff socket in the arm a piece of true wire, sufficiently tight to 
allow of the balance being held onto it with friction, so that the balance 
can be trued in the flat by the fingers or with tweezers and remain while 
poising on the parallel bars. 

Fig. 13 illustrates a form of tweezers made especially for balance 
truing. To here explain the parallel bars and give a few points regard- 
ing the essential features will be well, and help to make clear some 

points that 
follow in the 
poising instruc- 
tions. The par- 
allel bars for 
the use of 
watch repairers 
with the fol- 
lowing features, will be suited to all the cases met 
with : The two bars, if made of steel, for instance, 
must have only the top edges on which the pivots 
rest made of this metal, and the less the better. The 
top edge should not be over yj^ of an inch thick and 
the bar ^ or i inch long. The bars must have the 
guides that carry them move them open or shut for 
different lengths of siiaffs, and keep the bars parallel 
during the movements. The bars, after they are in 
their places and securely fastened to the stand 
carrying them, must be ground true, straight and 
parallel, on a flat piece of glass (plate glass is the best), charged 
with emery of about 140, with oil sufficient to make a paste. The 
glass can be held and used as a file or the bars can be held down 
on the glass and moved about with a circular stroke, but if the 
stand is large and heavy this operation will not be readily performed 
with good results. The main reason for using the glass referred to, is 
that it is a ready way of getting a grinding bed comparatively true with- 
out labor or preparation. A flat metal surface, marble or stoneware, 
would answer well, but would not be so readily had. After the emery 
has ground the surface true, clean off" all the emery and use fine oil stone 
powder or pumice stone; clean, and follow the pumice stone with any 
polishing powder, or follow the pumice stone with a large and true bur- 
nishing file, keeping the surface wet slightly. In making the parallel 
edges, the object is to give them a perfectly straight surface on the edge 
and highly polished. These parallels are probably best made of bell 
metal, as there is then no danger of their being affected or accumulating 



29 Balance. 

magnetism. In the construction of a poising tool, to avoid the use of 
iron or steel in its make-up, will be found the most satisfactory-, as then 
magnetism will not be a disturbing element that it might otherwise be. 
The whole tool should be heavy and low and stand on the bench firmly, 
and, if a fine one, have two level vials set in its base to level up the par- 
allels with, before using. With a level bench and a tool made so that the 
feet are parallel to the top edge of the parallels, there will be little 
trouble in the balance rolling by gravity while poising. There are a 
great variety of poising tools, and any that have the parallel bars true 
and straight and parallel to one another, readily adjusted for distance, 
and have a firm and heavy stand, will be easily and satisfactorily han- 
dled. 

Holes for the staff pivots are not good for poising, although jeweled, 
as the pivots must turn in them with a slipping action, whereas they roll 
without slip or friction on the parallels. The extreme top edge of the 
parallels, if of hard substance, can be made as thin as the goo ^^ '^^ inch 
and be all the better, as will be explained. The plain, straight portion of 
a conical pivot of a fine staff is frequently not over the ^J^ of an inch 
long, and this is the part of the pivot that is to be exactly concentric 
•with the center of gravity of the balance 

after poising is accomplished and is that v 

part of the pivot that rests on the jewel. | 

Now, from this it will be seen that the % 

thickness of the parallels can not be great, 

not over the gJo of ^^i inch, as the conical 

part of the pivot must not touch the *^* 

parallel, and the end of the pivot should be outside of the parallel. Fig. 

14 will show the situation and give the best idea. After the balance has 

been trued on the wire, then test on the straight edge, and if the balance 

rolls freely and gravitates, then lighten it on the down or heavy side. 

Or in the event that the balance is rather light it may be advisable to 

weight it on the top or light side. 

It will take a little practice to poise in this first operation, and there 
are several points to look at. First, if the balance is a heavy one, 
then in poising take away weight; second, if a plain (not comp.), 
remove little bits from the under side of the rim with a graver or 
drill; if very light, add weight by drilling in the rim and driving 
in several pins and then filing away till poised. The pins must 
be put into the rim at such points as are indicated by the circumstances. 
Soft solder, if used on the under side of a plain balance, is very easily 
handled, but the risk from the soldering fluid is great and requires great 
care in cleaning, but when all is well done, it serves a good purpose. As 
the wire on which the balance is hung is large in diameter, the poising 
will not be very delicate, but can be made good enough for the end 
served. In poising a compensating balance, the balance must be hung 




Balance. 30 

on a wire with each end pointed, turned to points, so that the wire can 
be held in the calipers and the balance made true in the round.* Set 
the gauge of the calipers so that the rim at the end of one arm shall 
exactly coincide with it, and then turn the balance slowly under the 
gauge and see if the rim turns truly under it. If not true, bend in or 
out with the fingers and try by gauge till the balance will turn true in 
the round, then put onto the parallels and poise as in case of the plain 
balance, but alter the weight with the screws. The screws that are at 
the bottom can be put into a split chuck and a little turned away from 
the under side of the head, or a washerf can be put under the head of 
the top screw, and this method pursued till a reasonably fine poising is 
obtained. In these operations all the points relating should be well con- 
sidered, and not make moves without method and good reasons. Care 
is required all through poising in all its branches. 

These washers are very convenient to use in cases where a balance 
requires a little more weight, and where it is not advisable to change the 
hairspring or regulator when regulating to time, and in such cases must 
be put under the heads of the screws at the ends of the arms. All things 
being equal, in poising a weighted balance, it is better to add a little 
weight than to take away any, by turning the heads of screws as de- 
scribed, and then the balance is not in any way injured, and if it was all 
correct when found, although indications led to other conclusions, by 
removing a washer or two the balance would be left as originally, and 
much trouble saved in trying to remedy a mistake. Never make any 
changes in a fine compensated balance, as, in all probability, it was correct 
when made and some injudicious handling is to blame for any defect. 
After a balance has been trued in the calipers as described, so that the 
rim is truly concentric with the hole in the arm, it should, if it has not 
been injured, be virtually in poise, but if it is not, add washers to the 
screws on the light side, and by them try to poise it rather than by 
lessening the weight. Many times, taking a screw from the heavy side 
and putting it in place of one on the light, and the light in place of the 
heavy, will tend to an equilibrium, and so far as it does, is so much gain 
In removing the screws in a compensating balance, care must be used 
when they are replaced, to see that they are left just tight enough to stay 
in place, and at the same time not bind the head hard down on the rim. 
Screws badly handled in this respect may derange the compensation, also 
the poising. All the screws of a balance, except those at the ends of the 
arms, and occasionally a pair of the quarters, should be down, heads close 
to the rim. The others can be turned in and out at pleasure to 
poise, or for timing, as required. With a balance with a screw at each 
end of the arm, it is best not to move them in or out in poising, but pro- 
ceed as described and leave these screws to be moved in timing afterward, 

♦See Gauges. 

fSee Balanee Screw Washers, 



31 Balance. 

if required, as it helps to make that operation easy. When a balance 
has four screws they may be moved to do all the poising and afterward 
any pair opposite, or the whole, may be moved in timing and not disturb 
the poising. A compensating balance with four screws as described is 
much the easiest balance to handle, for by these screws the finer adjust- 
ments in poising and timing can be easily performed with greater cer- 
tainty than by the old methods as described. 

The balance staff is a very important element in poising and its pivots 
should be perfect, that is, perfect cylinders, and all that part that touches 
the hole jewel should be of equal diameter. By referring to cut of staff, 
it will be seen that the end after leaving the cone is straight, of equal dia- 
meter throughout its whole length, and this is the shape of all staff pivots 
at that point riding in the jewel holes, no matter what curve or shape may 
be given to the balance of the pivot. When there is a different diameter 
in the top and bottom pivots they are each true cylinders and their cylin- 
drical diameters are parallel to each other and to the axis of the staff. 
When pivots are bent, or out of parallel with the axis of the staff, they are 
then not in condition to make poising possible, as a bent pivot will make 
a balance gravitate and act as though out of poise in itself, and with a 
bent pivot, poising can only be approximately attained. Perfectly cylin- 
drical and parallel pivots to a staff are, in poising, a very essential 
feature, and without which poising cannot be attained. 

When a balance has been poised as indicated and a staff made and fit- 
ted with perfectly cylindrical and parallel pivots, proceed as follows, and 
there will be little to do to complete the operation : First put the balance 
on the staff with a hollow punch and only press it on sufficiently to hold 
for preliminary tests; then place on the parallels of the poiserand exam- 
ine; should the balance appear in poise, it must not be taken for granted 
that it is so, but try a very slight jar given the poising tool, like rubbing 
over the frame an old file, which will impart to it a very slight vibra- 
tion, and if the balance is actually out, it will roll and then remain with 
the heavy side down. If ajar, such as a series if taps with a hammer, be 
given, the balance will rotate and stop for an instant and then rotate 
again, and finally jar off thje bars and the operation will not prove any- 
thing. The jar is such that the balance raises up bodily, when made 
with a file, and then falls down exactly on the same place on the paral- 
lels, rather the pivots come to rest always at the same point; and it will 
be seen by this means that if any point of the rim is in reality heavier 
from gravity, that it will by the momentum imparted, fall, overcoming 
the pivot friction, and finally seek a point in a direct line under the staff. 

Repeated inovements of a balance while on the parallels are necessary, 
together with great cleanliness of pivots and parallels, to thoroughly 
ascertain the true poised condition of the balance. When it is ascertained 
that a balance is out of poise or has a heavy side, punch out the staff 
and put the balance again on it only turned just one-half way around, 



Balance. 32 

and repeat as above. In this way a staff can be put into a balance to the 
best advantage and such little items all tend to save time and make easy 
the whole handling. When the best position is found for the staff, stake 
it, and true in the flat, and test again on the bars, and if necessary make 
further changes as above to affect a poise. When a balance is in poise 
and a staff perfectly true as has been described, and well staked on, it 
will in the most cases be found poised and nothing further to do. After 
putting on the roller it rs advisable to test again foryoiiition, but it is 
generally unnecessary, as this will not disturb the poising only in excep- 
tional cases. By staking on the roller too tight the staff may be bent 
and may destroy the poise. 

Care is necessary in handling a balance for any purpose, not to bend 
the rim, soil or corrode the metal and finish, and in making slight altera- 
tions in the curve of the rim, not to bend it at the holes and so destroy 
its true circle and injure the strengtli of the metal and change its adjust- 
ment. 

Any one, after poising a balance and testing the movement carefully 
indifferent positions, will in many cases be aware of quite a change of 
rate in the changes of position, and this, at the first thought, would seem 
to rather reflect on the accuracy of the poising; but it will be found to 
occur at times with the most carefully poised balance, and that the oper- 
ation of poising by the parallels does not comprehend the whole, nor the 
very nicer requirements. In any case the most careful mechanical pois- 
ing must be attended to first, before any operations of a more delicate 
nature are attempted. In short, the parallels are to be used in the most 
delicate methods, but precede the others. When a movement is placed 
in its case and hung up, after poising on the parallels, its rate should be 
carefully noted for a given time, then it should be just reversed and set 
up with the pendent down, when it will be found, as a rule, that after a 
trial of same duration as the first, that the rate will not be the sarr^^. 
Now, when this occurs in a fine movement, it will be advisable to inves- 
tigate all the parts which in any way relate to this action. Both hole 
jewels must be examined, for finish, thickness and truth of the bore; the 
roller jewel and the lever-fork examined; guard pin and its action with 
the table; the hairspring and all its relations and connections; the bal- 
ance must be removed and then the lever, and the lever placed on the 
parallels by its staff pivots, as in the balance, and tested for poising. The 
lever should, when placed on the parallels,'^«y horizontal, like the beam 
of pan scales, and not swing or hang either end down ; the weight should 
be removed from the heavy end, in such an event, until the lever will lie 
as indicated. Levers can be, and are made, that will stand in any position, 
like a poised balance, but it will, in most cases, be difficult to poise a lever 
for any position other than horizontal. Next, the escape wheel must be 
poised so that it will perform as a poised balance, when on the parallels; 
lever and escape jewels examined, as in those of the balance staff. 



33 



Balance. 



After all has been so far attended to, and the parts in place again, the 
balance must stand, when the mainspring is entirely run down, with its 
arms either perpendicular or horizontal; with a movement, whose bal- 
ance is near the center, the arms can stand pointing to 6 and 12, or '» 
and 9, as the most convenient. In requiring balance arms to stand in 
some fixed relation to prominent points of the movement, the manipula- 
tions are greatly facilitated, though any position the arms may chance 
to have will not interfere with the result, but a more expert hand will 
be required to get along with ease and certainty. 

When all the foregoing operations are attended to, hang up the watch 
and take its rate for 12 hours, with main spring fully wound up; then 
reverse its position, with main spring wound up, and test for another 12 
hours. On examination, if there should be any considerable variation in 
the rates in the two positions, say 10 to 15 seconds, then proceed by 
changing the screws as follows: in a case where the watch loses when 
hanging, it indicates that a screw of the balance nearest to 12 or 6, Avhen 
the movement is entirely run down, must be moved a very little in or 
out. In this case, it is fair to suppose that the balance is too heavy on 
the side nearest 6— that this side gravitates, and, to an extent, acts like 
a pendulum. Assuming this to be the case, turn the lower screw in and 
the upper one out, where there are four timing screws, and, where not, 
washers may be added to the top screws, and the two trials repeated. 
After trial, if the result is improved, then the lower screw may be made 
a little lighter, but not at the first trial. In the first trials the balance 
should not be altered in weight, as indications in these manipulations are 
changed or modified by conditions not yet mentioned. 

We will assume that the balance has four screws, and when one is 
turned in and the other out, as indicated, and the end attained, then the 
watch is to be placed with the 3 or 9 up, and two trials made, as in the 
first, and the same method used, if indications are similar. 

When the handling of the balance has been correctly done, the poising 
will be found to equalize the rates of the different positions, and the total 
performance improved. There are, of course, many chances for mis- 
takes, but, with caution, they will do no harm, for if the balance is not 
changed other than a change in distribution of its weights, the act of 
restoring will be merely setting all the screws back to the position they 
were when poised by the parallels, and then proceed again on a new 
method, reversing the first; and then gradually it will be made clear 
to the most inexperienced, remembering that what held good in 
one case may not in another; and that various cases are onlv com- 
passed by trial; and that the indications in the one may be just reversed 
in the other. 

Instead of changing the lower screw as previously suggested, another 
trial may be made with 12 down, and the rate taken for the same period 
as for 6 down, and the two compared. Now if the watch maintains its 



Balance. 



34 



former record it is pretty good evidence that the two rates will be its 
rates for these two positions, and then the alterations may be made. 
Now, while hanging in this case the vNatch lost, 6 down, and relatively 
gained with 12 up, and a very natural conclusion would be, if losing 
with 6 down, that the lower side of the balance would be the heaviest. 
Such is not the case, but the indications are that the upper side is the 
heaviest, and that the screw there should be turned in, and that the lower 
one mav or mav not be changed. Change the top screw first, in this 
case and then make another trial and compare with the first. In all 
average cases, after changing the screw, the two rates should be found to 
be closer than in the first trial, and this will give a pretty good index of 
how to proceed. The philosophy of the action is the same as that of 
the action of the musical measuring instrument used to beat music 
measures, called a metronome. It has a short pendulum with the rod 
prolonged above the shaft that it swings on, and on the upper end ot this 
rod is a small weight that slides up and down and so regulates the beats. 
The position of this weight, being above the center of motion, has a very 
great control of the vibrations and controls them for a wide range. For 
instance, the whole pendulum of one of these instruments is not over 2 
or 2K inches long, but with the little counter weight it can be made to 
beat seconds and slower measures, which could not be accomplished 
with anvthing short of a 39 inch pendulum and over. Then move the 
screw as already indicated, keeping in mind the compared pendulum 
action and its philosophy. 

Gravitating on the principle of the simple pendulum is not the whole 
problem in moving the screws of the balance, but they embrace the phi- 
losophy of the instrument described, and this must be kept in mind in 
the handling. In experiments it will be found that a screw moved at 
at the top of a balance, will make Uvice as much changing in the rate as 
the same movement of a screw at the bottom. Hang up a watch and 
turn out the lower screw one-half a turn, and the rate will be, tor 
instance ten seconds slow in six hours. Now put up just reversed, and 
tor the next six hours the watch will be found twenty seconds slow or 
more. Now, if we proceed in this case on the simple pendulum philos- 
ophy we should make a mistake in moving the screws. 

In practice it is not necessarv to make only tests for 3 and 9, assuming 
we have an open face watch. First regulate on full spring for 6 or eight 
hours hanging, and when well regulated place the watch 3 up and then 9 
for the same period on full spring, and if any material change in rate is 
found in the two last, then move the screw as already indicated, keeping 
in mind the compound action and its philosophy. 

The handling of the screws in poising on the parallels and in the run- 
ning watch are for some indications just reversed, and this is due to the 
action of lever and hairspring on the balance, with gravity in one case 
and to gravity alone in the other. In experimenting with the running 



35 Balance Arc. 

watch ahvavs wind fully up for each trial, and periods of six to eight 
hours will be found the most convenient. The upper coils of a main- 
spring are much the most equal in power, and consequently give best 
results; that is, the fourth, fifth and sixth turns of a spring are much 
nearer each other in strength than are the second, third and fourth. If a 
balance is perfectly poised mechanically, and the whole train in perfect 
mechanical poise and condition, then the running watch should not give 
any very considerable difference in rate in four positions, but as this is 
not the case generally there will be a change of rate in the positions and 
the balance can be then manipulated to correct the error, although it in 
itself may not be at fault. The reason for not testing a watch for the 
whole range of four positions, is that in the pocket, a watch is not sup- 
posed to get into a position with the stem down,. three and nine are apt 
to be up and down, and so with twelve are the three positions used. The 
isochronal condition of the hairspring is apt to make trouble in these 
experiments, and this is another reason for using full spring invariably. 
The extent of motion of the balance is another element in the mat- 
ter, and any movement when in perfect poise for a balance motion of }{ 
of a revolution, each side of the center or dead point (i)^ revolution) 
would not be found in as accurate poise for 3^ of a revolution. A bal- 
ance making one and a half revolutions, to a certain extent, is self-cor- 
recting, as will be seen, and is to be preferred to any other movement, 
for if any point of the rim is out of poise then the fault is brought just 
opposite in each excursion, and so does not relatively gravitate. Owing 
to the fusee, an English lever with a balance making one and one-half 
revolutions, is the highest form of movement for accurate adjustments 
of any kind and so is the easiest to realize perfect poising. The Ameri- 
can watch is so uniformly well and evenly made by machinery that 
poising is in it quite easy, and much more so than in foreign makes. A 
Waltham movement that I tested, just as it left the factory, only changed 
its rate about three seconds for the four positions. This could not be 
realized in any medium grade of foreign watch, and I presume this is not 
a single case, but probably rather a type. The American movement is 
made mechanically so near perfection that the watchmaker will find 
poising a balance comparatively easy, and that what he finds to hold good 
in one case will be pretty sure in another, due to this mechanical perfec- 
tion. J. L. F. 

BALANCE ARC. That part of the vibration of a balance in 
which it is connected with the train, used only in reference to detached 
escapements. 

BALANCE BRIDGE OR COCK. The standard that holds the 
top pivot of the balance in an upright position. In some of the old En- 
glish and French full plate watches the balance cock was spread out to 



Balance Protector. 



36 



cover the entire balance, as shown in Fig. 15, and was sometimes artis- 
tically wrought and set with precious stones. 

BALANCE PROTECTOR. No matter how careful a person may 
be accidents will happen, and the least accident to a compensation bal- 
ance gives the workman considerable trouble. The Arrick patent bal- 
ance protector, Fig. 16, is intended for guarding balances from contact 





Fig. 15. ^'^- ''■ 

with turnincr tools, polishers and the hand rest, while work is being done 
upon the pivots. The staff is passed through the hole in the protector, 
and held in a wire chuck, and the protector is secured to the arms of 




Fid. n. 
the balance bv two screws. The Bullock protector, shown in Fig. 17, is 
designed to protect the balance and other wheels from heat while draw- 
ing the temper from staff or pinion for the purpose of pivoting. 

BALANCE SCREW WASHERS. All watch adjusters and ex- 
pert repairers time their watches by the balance screws, without un- 
pinning the hairspring, and have their regulator in the center. After 
the curve of the hairspring is once correct, it should never be let out 
or taken up The portion of the spring where it is pinned is naturally 
<;tiffer and often abruptly bent to make the first coil conform to the stud 
and regulator. In unpinning the spring this curve is necessarily altered 
and the spring thrown out of the center, tlie heat and cold ad.iust- 
ment is altered and the isochronal adjustment often entirely destroyed. 
When a watch has timing or quarter screws and they move m or out 
friction tight, you can very soon bring your watch to time without 



37 Balance Staff. 

molesting the spring and have the i-egulator in the center, and also poise 
by these screws. Very often some of these timing screws are so tight 
that there is danger of twisting them off. You will also find that two- 
thirds of the watches of the best makes do not have timing screws. In 
this case time by a pair of screws opposite the balance arms. If it runs 
too slow lighten an opposite pair of scnews (just mentioned) in a split 
chuck or file in the slot with slotting file. If it runs too fast put a pair 
of washers under the screws near the balance arms, or four at right 
angles or inore under other screws. Whatever may be required in pois- 
ing put the required amount on the light side of the balance rim. Do 
not tamper with an adjusted hair-spring or any other. If you are 
anxious to do your work quickly and accurately, compare your seconds 
hand with that of the regulator. See Poisi7ig the Balance. 

BALANCE SPRING, '^qq Hair Spring. 

BALANCE STAFF. The axis or staff to which the balance is 
attached. In some makes of watches the balance staff and collet are one 
piece, while in others the collet is made of brass and is fitted tightly to the 
staff. 

Making a New Staff. It is a very common thing for American 
workman, especially those who reside in the large cities, to depend 
upon the stock of the material dealer for their staffs. The country watch- 
maker must, however, rel}^ upon his mechanical ability, and even in the 
large cities the workman will have to make his own staffs when repair- 
ing many foreign watches. The following instructions relate more 
particularly to staffs for American watches, though they may be applied 
to foreign watches as well. Before proceeding further I would call the 
attention of the trade to a most valuable series of essays on the balance 
staff, published in the columns of The American Jeweler., and would 
advise those interested to read them carefully* 

The material used should be the best, say Stubb's steel wire, a little 
larger in diameter than the largest part of the staff and a trifle longer 
than the old one. A w^ire that fits the No. 45 hole in the pinion guage 
will be about right in the majority of cases. 
Put this in the split chuck of your lathe, if you 
use an American lathe, and rough it out to the 
form shown at B in Fig. iS. If you use a 
Swiss or wax-chuck lathe, the form of chuck Fig. is. 

shown at A, Fig. 18, will be found very useful. f It is made from a piece 
of brass rod, threaded to fit the lathe spindle and bored out to receive 

* Makins^ ;ind Replacing the Balance Staff, a series of seventeen essays published in 
The American yezveler for December, 1S8S, and January to September, 1SS9. inclusive. 
The Illustrations are from these essays. 

t From the essay by " Pasadena," y^/M.fr/frt« "Jevjeler March, 1SS9. 



?P ^ ?p , B 



"s — S" 



Balance Staff. 



38 



B 



^ 



A 



m\\\\\\w\ \ ffl 



the work, which is held by set screws, three or four at each end of tlie 
chuck. By the aid of these screws the work may be held very firmly 
and yet can easily be brought to center. 

After bringing the work to the general form of the staff, in the rough, 
remove from the lathe, smear with soap and harden by heating to a 
cherry red and plunge endwise into oil. Re chuck in the lathe, and while 
revolving, whiten by applying a No. ooo emery buff, so that you mav 
observe the color while drawing the temper. Now place the roughed- 
out blank in the bluing pan, and draw to a deep blue in color. 

The heights may be taken from the old staff, providing it was not 
faulty and is at hand, but all things considered it is better to make your 
measurements and construct the new staff" independent of the old one. 

f^ A simple tool, and one which 

any watchmaker can make, is 

shown in Fig. 19. It will be 

Tj* f ^ found very convenient in taking 

the measurements of heights of 
Fig. HI. a staff.:}: It consists of a hollow 

sleeve A, terminating in a foot B. Through this is screwed the rod C, 
terminating in a pivot Z>, which is small enough to enter the smallest 
jewel To ascertain the right height for the roller, place it upon the 
foot B, indicated in Fig. 20, and set the pivotof the tool in the foot jevvel, 
and adjust the screw until the roller is in the 
proper relation to the lever fork as shown in 
the illustration. In Fig, 20 the potence and 
plate of the watch are siiown in section at ^. 
The roller is indicated at c and the lever fork 
at d. After the adjusting of the roller is com- 
pleted, remove the tool and apply it to the 
rough staff as indicated in Fig 21, at yl, and 
the point at which the seat for the roller 
should be cut will be shown. In order to 
ascertain the height of the balance, apply the 
gauge as before and bring the points, so as to give sufficient clearance 
below the plate as indicated by the dotted lines at B, Fig. 20. Then 
ipply the gauge to the work as indicated at B, Fig. 21, and turn the 




Fig. 20. 



rfC^;: 



<=t(^^ 



Fig. 21. 

balance seat at the point indicated. The diameter of the seat for the 
roller, balance and hairspring collet, can be taken from the old staff. 



X Other measuring instruments for this jjurpose will be found under Gauges. 



39 



Balance Staff. 





Ill III 


' 1 1 Ml 11 1 M I M 1 1 1 


T 1 III 1 III 11 II 1 1 


I 1 1 1 1 1 



B 



Fig. 22. 



or gauge the holes with a taper arbor or a round broach, and then take 
the size from the broach with caHpers. 

The diameter of the lower pivot should be taken from the jewel, and 
the ordinary pivot gauge, when used in connection with a round pivot 
broach, is all that is necessary even 
for the finest work. At A, in Fig. 
22, is shown the gauge, each divis- 
ion of which corresponds to about 
25^00 ^^ ^^ inch. Slip the jewel on 
the broach as far as it will go with- 
out forcing, as shown at B, Fig. 22, 
and then take the size of the broach, 
close up to the jewel, by means of the slit in the gauge. This will not 
give you the e.xact size of the jewel hole, but will be just enough smaller 
to allow of the proper freedom of the pivot. 

The best shape for the pivots is shown in Fig. 23, known as conical 

pivots, the straight portion of the pivot 
which enters the jewel hole being truly 
cylindrical and about ^J^ of an inch long. 
Fig. 23. Many very good workmen employ but 

one graver for performing the entire work, but it is better to have at least 
three, similar in shape to those shown in Fig. 23; A for turning the staff 
down in the rough, B for under-cutting, and C for turning the conical 
shoulders of the pivots. A graver like that shown at D will be found 
excellent for beginners and others who find it difficult to hold the 




A 




Fig. 24. 

shoulder square and at right angles to the staff B^ without leaving a 
groove in one or the other. The all important thing is to keep the 
gravers sharp. Upon the least sign of their not cutting, stop the work 
and sharpen them. 

Next in importance is the position in wliich the graver is applied to 
the work. It must, under all circuinstances, r«/ and not s^crapr. If held 



o 



Balance Staff. 40 

as shown at A, Fig. 25, it will cut a clean shaving, while if applied as at 
B, it will only scrape. If held as shown at C, the force of the cut will be 
in' the direction of the hand, as indicated by the arrow. If the point 

should catch from any cause, the hand 

~ . /^\ .^ would yield and no harm would be 

^' zy— ^/\ — ^^ done, while if held as at Z>, the force of 

^ the cut would be downward upon the 

><>»-— r"7 ^--N^ . j.gs|-^ as indicated by the arrow, and the 

V_) ^"^^ \^*^ rest being unyielding catching would 

Fig. 25. be dangerous. 

The roughing out should be done with the point of the graver held as 
at C, Fig. 25, and then finished with the edge held diagonally as at Ay 
Fig. 26. It is difficult to show the exact position in the cuts, but the idea 
is to have the shavings come away in a spiral may be as fine as a hair, 
but in perfect coils. 

To turn the pivot, hold the graver nearly in line with the axis of the 
lathe, as shown at B, Fig 26, and catching a chip at the extreme end 
with the back edge of the graver, A g 

push forward and at the same time ctrjif^ c:Cp:z=^^2====^:^ 
rolling the graver towards you, \ ^ — H/ 

which will give the pivot the conical 
form. Very small pivots can be | 

turned in this way with perfect ^*.'?. 20. 

safety, and very smoothly. Of course, this method of turning will not 
give sharp corners; such places as the seat of the roller, balance, etc., 
must be carefully done with the point of the graver. 

The pivot and seat of the roller sliould be left slightly larger than re- 
quired, to allow for the grinding and polishing, the amount of which will 
depend upon how smoothly the turning is done. The grinding is done 
^ -V ^ y with a slip of bell-metal or soft 

\ A \ / B \ ^""O" °^" ^^^^^ °^ ^^^ shape shown 

\ \ I \ at A, Fig. 27. ^ is a bell-metal 

^,- 27. polisher, and may also be made 

of box wood. A should be used with oil-stone powder and oil, and B 

with crocus and diamantine for polishing. 

When the staff is finished from the lower pivot to the seat of the bal- 
ance, the upper part should be roughed out nearly to size, then cut off, 
reversed in the lathe and the top part finished. It is better to do this in 
a wax chuck even it you use a split chuck, for the lower part of the staiT 
is tapered and it is ten chances to one that you could select a split chuck 
that wouid hold it true and firm In using a wax chuck the important 
point is to get a perfect center. It should be turned out with the graver 
at an angle of about 60°, care being taken not to leave a little "tit" in 
the center. Before setting the staff in the wax it is necessary to get its 
full length as follow: Screw the balance cock in place with both cap 




41 Banking. 

jewels removed, and if the cock has been oent up or down, or punched to 
raise or lower it, see that il is straightened and put right; then with a 
degree gauge or calipers take the distance between the outer surfaces of 
the hole jewels, and shorten the staff with a file to that length. 

A very handy tool can be made by adding a stop-screw to the common 

double calipers as shown in Fig. 
28. The improvement is that 
they can be opened to remove 
from the work and closed again 
e.xactly the same. 

When fixing the staff in the 
Fig- 28. chuck, care should be taken not 

to burn the wax. Use a small lamp and heat the chuck until the wax 
will just become fluid. The staff should be set in the wax about to the 
seat of the balance, the finished pivot resting in the center of the chuck, 
and the outer end trued up by the finger and the point of a peg while 
the wax is still soft. 

Fig. 29 shows it with the staff finished, but, of course, it is not, when 
put in the wax. The dotted lines show about the right quantity and 
shape of the wax, which must be true and round, or in cooling it will 
draw the work out of center. If necessary, when 
cool, the wax can be turned true with the graver, { ~ ^fW 

again heated and centered. The turning and finish- \ S]]: 

ing is to be done as previously described. The seat ^''^J- ^•"• 

for the balance should be slightly undercut and fitted to drive on tightly 
without riveting. Take the size of the top pivot from its jewel the same 
as the lower. The ends of the pivots should be finished as flat as 
possible, and the corners slightly rounded. When done, remove from 
the wax and boil in alcohol to clean, and it is ready to receive the bal- 
ance, which should first be poised as described on page 27. 

BANKING. In a lever watch, the striking of the outside of the 
lever by the impulse pin owing to excessive vibratio» of the balance. In 
a horizontal or verge, the striking of the pin in the balance against the 
fixed banking stud or pin. 

BANKING ERROR. When by a sudden circular motion of the 
watch in the plane of the balance (a very frequent occurence when 
wearing the watch, or winding it up in a careless way), the vibration 
increases to' more than two full turns, the impulse-pin strikes against the 
outside of the fork, which cannot yield, because it is leaning against the 
banking-pin or edge. By the violence of this percussion there is some 
danger of injury, not only to the ruby-pin, but also to the balance-pivots, 
which are often bent or broken by the reaction. But more than that, 
all such cases are accompanied by a considerable acceleration of the rate 



Banking Pins. 43 

of the watch, producing under unfavorable circumstances great dif- 
ferences in its time-keeping. 

BANKING PINS. The two pins that limit the motion of the lever 
in the lever escapement, are known as banking pins. The pins used for 
limiting the motion of the balance in verge and horizontal escape- 
ments are also known as banking pins. The two pins in the balance 
arm which limit the motion of the balance spring in pocket chronome- 
ters are also known as banking pins. 

BANKING SCREW. An adjustable screw in the chronometer 
escapement, the head of which regulates the amount of locking by form- 
ing a stop for the pipe of the detent. 

BARLEYS. The little projections formed by the operation of 
engine-turning. 

BARLOW, EDV\^ARD. A clergyman who invented the rack 
striking work for clocks in 1676. With this mechanism clocks could be 
made to repeat the hour at will, and its popularity on this account led to 
the introduction of repeating watches a few years later. Barlow and 
Quare both applied for a patent for repeating watches, and the English 
government decided in favor of the latter in 1687. 

BAR MOVEMENT. A watch movement in which the top plate is 

omitted and the upper pivots of the movement are carried in bars. A 

bar movement is sometimes called a " skeleton " movement. 
I 

BAROMETRIC ERROR. The alteration in the timekeeping of a 
clock due to changes in the density of the atmosphere through which the 
pendulum has to move. Chronometers and watches are doubtless 
affected from the same cause to a lesser extent. Experiments by Mr. Ellis 
showed that if a magnet were fixed vertically to a pendulum, just above 
the pole of another magnet attached to the clock case, the rate of the 
clock could easily be altered by causing the magnets to recede from or 
approach each other. When the adjacent poles of the two magnets were 
similar, the repulsion retarded the clock, and the attractive power of dis- 
similar poles caused it to gain. Taking advantage of this fact, he de- 
vised a barometric compensation for the standard sideral clock at the 
Greenwich Observatory, where it answers admirably. Two bar mag- 
nets, each about six inches long, are attached to the pendulum bob, one 
behind and one in front. The latter is marked a in the engraving. A 
lever resting at a on knife edges carries a horse-shoe magnet l>, whose 
poles are exactly under the bar magnets and about 3.7:^ inches below 
them. At the other extremity of the lever is a rod (<■/) carrying a float 



43 



Barrel. 



«, which rests on the mercury in the short leg of a barometer, as shown. 
The area of the cistern part of the short leg is four times the area of the 
upper part of the barometer tube, so that a variation of one inch in the 

barometric pressure would 
affect the height of the mer- 
cury in the cistern but .25 
of an inch. As the clock 
gained with a falling barom- 
eter, the bar magnet over 
the south pole of the horse- 
shoe magnet was placed 
with its north pole down- 
wards, and the bar magnet 
over the north pole of the 
horse-shoe magnet with its 
south pole downwards, so 
that there should be attrac- 
tion between the bar mag- 
nets and the horse-shoe 
magnet. The bracket sup- 
porting the knife edges can 
be shifted, to increase or 
diminish the action of the 
magnet, and the lever is bal- 
anced by placing the weights 
in the pan/i 




Fig. 30. 



BARREL. The circular brass or steel box that encloses the main- 
spring of a watch or clock. 

BARREL ARBOR. The barrel axis, around which the main- 
spring coils. M. Roze calls attention to the importance of the proper 
diameter of barrel arbors, and points out that if the arbor is too large 
part of the elastic reaction of the spring will be wasted, and if too small 
there will be a rupture or straining of the spring and therefore a loss of 
elastic reaction. It is, then, he says, the thickness of spring that deter- 
mines the diameter of the arbor or conversely, and from this it follows 
that the diameter is not an arbitrary quantity, since it depends on the 
duration of flexible and thickness of spring. See Mainspritigs. 



BARREL CONTRACTOR. An instrument for contracting dis- 
torted mainspring barrels. It consists of a die with a series of tapered 
holes and punches to correspond. The barrel being forced into a hole 
slightly smaller than its circumference necessarily contracts. 



Barrel Hook. 44 

BARREL HOOK. A hook in the barrel to which the mainspring 
IS attached. The mainspring is sometimes attached by means of a hook 
on the spring which fit in a hole in the barrel. 

BARREL RATCHET. A wheel which is placed on the barrel 
arbor and kept from turning backward, when the mainspring is wound, 
by a click or dog. 

BARTLETT, P. S. The first ladies watch made in America was 
turned out by the American Waltham Watch Co., in 1861 and named 
the P. S. Bartlett. Previous to this however, in 1859 the company 
placed an 18 size movement on the m.arket which was named the P. S. 
Bartlett, but its manufacture was discontinued in 1859. Mr. P. S. 
Bartlett, after whom these movements were named, was born in Ames- 
bury, Mass., September 3, 1834. ^^^ ^^^^ connection with watchmaking 
was in 1854, "^vhen he went to work for the Boston Watch Co., just after 
its removal to Waltham Mass., where he occupied the position of fore- 
man of the plate and screw department. In 1864 he visited Chicago, 
and together with Messrs. Moseley, Adams and Blake, organized the 
National Watch Co., of Chicago, a^'terwards known as the Elgin 
National Watch Co. He subsequently signed a contract with the com- 
pany for five years, as foreman of the plate and screw departments. He 
was for seven years assistant superintendent and general traveling agent 
for the company, during which time he introduced Elgin watches into 
Europe, selling them in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other large cities. 
He is now in the wholesale and retail watch and jewelry busines in 
Elgin. 

BASCULE ESCAPEMENT. A form of chronometer escape- 
ment in which the detent is mounted on a pivoted axis. It is also 
known as the pivoted detent escapement to distinguish it from the 
spring detent. , 

BEAT. The striking of the^scape wheel upon the pallet or locking 
de\ ice. When an escapement is in adjustment, so that the striking of 
the escape wheel upon the pallets is even and equal it is said to be in 
beat and when it is not in adjustment it is said to be out of beat. The 
latter, says Saunier, may be due to any of the foliowing causes: i. 
One or even both of the pins that secure the hairspring in the collet and 
stud are loose. 2. The spring is strained between the two curb pins. 
3.' The Hairspring stud not having been placed immediately over the 
dot on the balance when putting the escapement together. 

BEAT BLOCK. A device for obviating the necessity of marking 
the balance to see that it is in beat. 



45 



Beat Pins. 



io„ if nn the block, turn the balance 

.r ;:.""^ - » » s:.'- -- -*- - • - - 

that the line comes under the ^_.-,._ 

stud In replacing the balance 

put the stud over the line and it 

.viU then beat the same as before 

By using this tool you also avoid 

getting the balance out of true. 

BEAT PINS. Small screAvs 
or pins to adjust the position of ^^.^^ ^^^ 

::r ^^"^H:" ^"^ of the gravity arms that give impulse to 
the pendulum in a gravity escapement. 




BELL METAL. See Alloys. 







Fig. 32. 

..cm almost an, tool and -'-'^' ^'-^ f,:'!: ZTrZ v^^yT delX 
fer to make their own or to have le.n,-d^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ 

to suit their pecuhar.l.es. The bencn 



Benzine, 



46 



latest designs on the market, the points claimed for it being that it is 

raised sufficiently from the ground to allow sweeping under it, its small 

weight and its low price. 
The frame is made of iron 
and is similar to those used 
for sewing machines. The 
foot wheel is fastened to 
Ihe iron frame on the left, 
instead of being supported 
by uprights from the floor. 
It is neat in appearance, 
substantial, and reasonable 
in price. From the sketch 
(Fig. 32) any first-class 
cabinet maker should be 
able to make a good bench. 
This bench is made of 
black walnut, veneered 
with French walnut and 
bird's eye maple. The top 
is twenty-one inches wide 
by forty-one long, and is 
thirty-three inches high. 
The drawers on the right 
hand side are ten inches 
wide. In the center are 
two drawers and the left 
hand side is entirely boxed 
Fig. 33. in. The lathe wheel can 

be varied to suit the ideas of the watchmaker, a space of five inches 

being left for its reception. For the various styles see Latlie Wheels. 

Well seasoned black walnut, 

cherry or red cedar are the 

best woods for a bench. The 

little pin attached to the right 

hand side of the bench is a 

pegwood cutter, an enlarged 

view of which is shown in 

Fig- 34- 





BENZINE. A light oil of petroleum used for cleaning move- 
ments. For directions for use see Watch Cleaning. 

BERTHOUD, FERDINAND. A Swiss horologist who was born 
in 1729 and died in 1S07. At the age of nineteen he visited Paris, never 



47 



Bevel Gears. 



afterward leaving it. Saunier sajs that "his technical training was 
matured and perfected by contact with the great masters of that day, of 
whom he subsequently became a rival. He was possessed of a very 
extensive knowledge and real talent, coupled with indefatigable energy; 
these are sufficient to explain and justify his great reputation. He pub- 
lished ten quarto volumes on horology. Berthoud did much valuable 
work, and his name will therefore long remain one of the glories of the 
horological art." 

BERTHOUD, LOUIS. A French chronometer maker and nephew 
of Ferdinand Berthoud. He died in 1813. 

BEVEL GEARS. Gears in which the two wheels working to- 
gether stand at an angle to each other. 

BEZEL. The grooved metal ring of a watch or clock tliat holds the 
crystal or glass in position. 

BEZEL CHUCK. See C/iuck. 

BINDING WIRE. Fine malleable iron wire used for binding 
articles while soldering, etc. 

BITE. To adhere to; to hold fast; as a set screw h'/es a shaft. The 
eating of metal by means of acid. 



BLOWER. The form of bellows shown in Fig. 35 is known as the 
Fletcher Foot- Blower, and is applicable wherever an air-blast is required, 
either for the blow-pipe or for operat- 
ing melting furnaces. It is simple 
compact, portable and powerful ; giv- 
ing a steady blast of air at a pres- 
sure of from one to nearly two 
pounds to the inch. Two patterns 
of this blower are made, one with 
the air reservoir on the top of the 
bellows, and the other like the one 
shown in the illustration. The 
latter form is preferable, as it obvi- 
ates the risk of injury to the rubber 
reservoir or its net, by dropping tools 
or corrosive liquids upon them. 




Fig. 35. 



BLOW-PIPE. A tapering metal tube, used to direct the flame 
from a lamp or gas jet upon an article for soldering, annealing and sim- 
ilar purposes. 



Bluestone. 



48 



Fig. 36 shows the automatic hand blow-pipe, which is used in connec- 
tion with the foot-blower. One of the rubber tubes shown is connected 
to the blower and the other to the gas supply. It is self-adjusting, for 

both gas and air, requiring 
only a slight motion of the 
ever, shown under the 
thumb, to obtain instantly 
any flame from the small- 
est to the largest. Fig. 37- 
shows Poppen's patent 
soldering blow-pipe lamp. 
In this lamp the flame is 
^^^' ^^' made by igniting the fumes 

of the gasoline contained in the can and forced through the pipe, as 
shown in the illustration. Flame can be made any size. Unscrew top 
A, fill can one quarter with gasoline (this fluid gives best results), handle 
same as an ordinary blow-pipe. Blowing through pipe B causes the fluid 





Fig. 37. 

In C to bubble, which separates the fumes from the fluid and at the same 
time forces them through pipe D to outlet E, then light wick at pipe G. 
For a small flame insert pin F in outlet E, which is also inserted to 
preserve the strength of fluid while the blow pipe is not in use. 

BLUESTONE. A soft blue stone, sometimes used for reducing 
brass and gold before polishing. It must not be confounded with b'ue 
vitriol, sometimes called bluestone. 

BLUING. The changing of the color of steel by heat. 

BLUING PAN. A pan used for bluing screws and other small 
articles. It is sometimes very desirable to match the color of screw 
heads in a watch. By making the following described simple little tool 
you can very readily color your screws straw, purple, or blue, as the 
case may require, to match the other screws in the watch. Select a very 
large mainspring barrel, drill a hole in the side of the barrel the size of 
an ordinary pendulutn rod for an American clock, cut a thread in this 



49 



Bob. 




hole and also on the piece of wire and screw it firmljr into the main- 
spring barrel, cutting off about four or five inches long, to which attach 
a neat piece of wood to serve as a handle. Now take out the head and 
fill the barrel full of fine marble dust or brass or iron filings and replace 
the head in the barrel, after which drill any number and size of holes in 

the barrel you wish, to accom- 
modate all sizes of watch 

. . ) screws, and the tool is ready 

for use. Bluing pans, similar 
Fig. 38. to the one shown in Fig. 38, 

can be purchased from material dealers, and are similar to the one des- 
cribed. After fitting the screw to the proper place in the watch, harden 
and temper in the usual manner. Polish out all the scratches or other 
marks, and selecting a hole in the tool to fit the screw loosely, press it 
down level with the face of the barrel and hold the tool over a tmall alco- 
hol lamp flame until the color 
desired appears. Heat up I 
slowly and the effect will be ^^=^-== 
much better than if it is done Fig. 39. 

rapidly. First blue the screws without any special regard as to uniformity 
of color. Should they prove to be imperfect, take a piece of clean pith 
and whiten the surface with rouge, without letting it be too dry. Pieces 
when thus prepared, if cleaned and blued with care will assume a very 
uniform tint. 

Soft screws are sometimes very difficult to blue evenly, but this diflS- 
cuity may be overcome by finishing them with a slightly soapy bur- 
nisher. Bluing shovels, like that shown in Fig. 39, can be purchased 
from material dealers. 

Pieces that are not flat will rarely assume an even color when placed 
in a fiat pan. To overcome this dificulty, sprinkle the bottom of the 
pan with fine brass filings or marble dust and press the article into it. 
The bluing pan or shovel should be thoroughly warmed before the 
articles are placed in it, in order that any moisture present may be 
dispersed. 




BOB. The metal weight at the bottom of the pendulum. 



BOILING-OUT PAN. A copper 



or brass pan, which is also 

known under the name 

of pickle pan. It is used 

for boiling steel pieces in 

alcohol to remove shel- 

Fi^. 40. lac, and for boiling out 

jewelry after soldering. For the latter purpose use sulphuric acid one 

part, and water fifteen to twenty parts. 




Bort. 50 

The pan, which is shown at Fig. 40, will also be found useful for tem- 
pering small steel articles by boiling them in oil. 

BORT. A collective name for diamonds of inferior quality, espec- 
ially such as have a radiating crystalization, so that they will not take a 
polish. These are crushed to form diamond powder, or diamond dust, 
which is used for cutting and polishing diamonds and other precious 
stones; also the steel work of watches, and other instruments of pre- 
cision. 

BOTTOMING FILE. A file constructed like those shown in 



^=^>=L ^ ^ 



Fig. 41. 

Fig. 41, so that it may be used for filing sinks, or other depressions, 
where an ordinary file cannot be brought into use. 

BOUCHON. A hard brass tubing sometimes inserted in watch 
and clock plates to form pivot holes, and known in America as bushing 
vrire. See Bushing. 

BOW. A device now obsolete, which consisted of a strip of whale- 
bone, to both ends of which a cord or gut was attached, and which was 
used to rotate a drill or mandril, before the introduction of watchmakers 
lathes. 

The ring of a watch case, by which it is attached to the chain. See 
also Pendant Bow 

Bow Tightener. See Pendant Bow Tightener. 

BOW COMPASSES. A pair of compasses furnished with a bow 

pen for describing circles with ink. Fig. 
42 illustrates the ordinary form of these 
implements, although they are some- 
times used in combination compasses, 
which are made to hold steel points and 
Fig. i2. pencils as well. 

BOW PEN. A metallic ruling pen, similar to the one attached to 
the bow compasses. 

BOXWOOD. The fine, hard-grained timber of the box, much used 
by wood engravers, and in the manufacture of musical and mathemat- 
ical instruments, etc. The wood is very free from gritty matter, and on 
that account its saw-dust is much used in cleaning jewelry, drying small 
polished articles, etc. 




51 Brass. 

BRASS. An alloy, consisting of about 65 parts of copper to 35 parts 
of zinc. This proportion is varied, according to the uses to which the 
alloy is to be put. 

Brass Polishes, i. Rottenstone 4 oz., oxalic acid, powdered, loz. ; 
sweet oil, 13^ oz.; turpentine to make a paste; apply with soft leather. 
2. Equal parts of sulphur and chalk, made into a paste with vinegar. 
Allow to dry on the article and clean with a chamois brush. 3. Dip the 
brass in a mixture of i oz. alum, i pint lye, and polish with tripoli on a 
chamois. This gives a brilliant luster. 

Magic Polish for Brass. Add to sulphuric acid half its bulk of 
bichromate of potash; dilute with an equal weight of water, and apply 
well to the brass; rinse it well immediately with water, wipe drv, and 
polish with pulverized rotten stone. 

Polishing Paste for Brass. Dissolve 15 parts of oxalic acid in 120 
parts of boiUtig water, and add 500 parts of pumice powder, 7 of oil 
of turpentine, 60 of soft soap, and 65 of fat oil. The polishing agent is 
usually mixed with oil, alcohol or water, to prevent scattering, and is 
then applied to the polishing tool in the shape of cloth and leather buffs, 
polishing files, etc. Either the work or the tool should revolve with 
great velocity, in order to secure good results. Many articles are 
brought to a high degree of polish, by the use of the burnisher, after 
subjecting them to the action of the ordinary polishing agents. 

Etching Fluids for Brass, i. Dissolve 6 parts chlorate of pot- 
ash, 100 parts water, add 160 parts water to 16 of fuming nitric acid; 
mix the two solutions. 2. One part sulphuric acid, 8 parts water. 3. 
One part nitric acid, 8 parts water. 4. Nitric or sulphuric acid 1 part 
saturated solution of bichromate of potash 2 parts, water 5 parts. 

Gold Yellow for Brass. A gold like appearance may be given to 
brass by the use of a fluid prepared by boiling for about 15 minutes, 4 
parts caustic soda, 4 parts milk sugar, and 100 parts water, after which 
4 parts of a concentrated solution of sulphate of copper is added with 
constant stirring. The mixture is then cooled to 79 degrees C, and the 
previously well cleaned articles are for a short time laid into it. When 
left in it for some time they will first assume a blueish and then a rain- 
bow color. 

Lacquers for Brass. i. Dragon's blood 40 grains; seed lac 6 
ounces; amber and copal, triturated in a mortar, 2 ounces; oriental saf- 
fron, 36 grains; alcohol 40 ounces; extract of red sanders ^ dram; 
coarsely powdered glass 4 ounces. 2. Gamboge, seed lac, annatto, 
dragon's blood, each i ounce; 3^ pints alcohol, ^ ounce saffron. 



Breguet Spring. 52 

Gold Lacquer for Brass. Twenty four grains extract red sanders 
wood in water, 60 grains dragon's blood, 2 ounces amber, 6 ounces 
seed lac, 2 ounces gamboge, 36 grains oriental saffron, 36 ounces pure 
alcohol, 4 ounces powdered glass. The amber, gamboge, glass, drag- 
on's blood and lac should be thoroughly pounded together. Infuse the 
saffron and the sanders wood extract in the alcohol for 24 hours. Pour 
this over the other ingredients and strain. 

Lacquer for Brass. Coat it with the following varnish; i part 
while shellac and 5 alcohol; i shellac, i mastic, 7 alcohol; or 2 sandarac, 
8 shellac, i Venetian turpentine, 50 alcohol; or, 12 parts sandarac, 6 mas- 
tic, 2 elemi, i Venetian turpentine, 64 alcohol. Clean the article well, 
do not touch with your hands, and warm to about 75^ C. 

Blackening Brass. Dissolve copper wire in nitric acid, weakened 
by adding, say, three or four parts of water to one of acid. The article 
to be blackened is made hot and dipped into the solution; it is then taken 
out and heated over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp. When the article 
is heated, the green color of the copper first appears, and as the heat is 
increased the article becomes of a fine dead black. If a polished surface 
is desired, finish with a coat of lacquer. This process is the very best 
for fine work, though articles soft-soldered cannot be safely subjected 
to it. For such, and rough work generally, the following, which is 
equally applicable for zinc and other metals, may be substituted : Mix 
lampblack on a stone with gold size; if a dull black is desired, make it 
to a very stiff paste; if a more polished surface, then use more gold size.. 
Add turpentine to thin it, and apply with a camel's hair brush 

BREGUET, ABRAHAM LOUIS. Born in Switzerland in 1747 
and died in Paris in 1823. An eminent watchmaker of French par- 
entage, and the inventor of the form of hairspring of that name. He 
was endowed with great ingenuity and a taste for complicated and 
remarkable mechanisms. 

BREGUET SPRING. See Hair Sfrtug. 

BRIDGE. The standard secured to the plate, by means of screws, 
and in which a pivot works. 

BROCOT SUSPENSION. The method of suspending a pen- 
duhun which is in use on nearly all mantel clocks of modern make, by 
means of which they may be regulated from the front of the dial by 
means of a key. 

BROACH. A tapering piece of steel used for enlarging holes and 
made with from two to eight cutting edges. Some broaches are made 
without cutting edges and are called polishing broaches. They are used 



53 Bronzing. 

for burnishing pivot holes. Care should be taken to see that the handles 
of your broacties are properly fitted so that they revolve truly. To test 
this, rest the points against the fingers of one hand and causing the 
handle to rotate by two fingers of the other hand and the broach itself 
should appear to remain true. Sealing wax answers the purpose as a 
handle for broaches very nicely, and the broach can be centered in it 
without much trouble. In the latter case hold the broach between two 
fingers with the handle downward, and rotate it while close to the flame 
of an alcohol lamp, so that the sealing wax forms a regular oblong 
handle. It is well to gently draw a piece of iron charged with rouge 
along the edges of pivot broaches in order to remove the thread of metal 
from them. Minute particles of this thread might otherwise remain in 
the holes, and occasion wear of the pivots. 

To Broach a Hole Vertically. It is quite a serious thing for 
young watchmakers to broach a hole vertically , a hole in a plate, or that 
in a barrel, is seldom maintained at right angles to the surface, when 
they have occasion to employ a broach. They may be certain of sue- 
cess, however, by adopting the following method: Take a cork of a 
diameter rather less than that of the barrel or other object operated 
upon, and make a hole in the length of the cork through which the 
broach can be passed. When the cork has been turned quite true on 
its end and edge, the broach is passed through, and used to enlarge the 
hole; by pressing against the back of the cork, it is kept against the 
barrel, whereby the broach is maintained in a vertical position. 

To Solder Broken Broaches. Steel broaches and other tools are 
soldered by cleaning well the parts broken, then dipping them into a 
solution of sulphate of copper, and soldering them with ordinary soft 
solder. The joint is a good one and will stand ordinary hard wear. 

BRONZING. See Electro-Plating^ Bronzing and Staining. 

BUFF. A device for polishing or reducing metals. Emery buffs 

are round or square sticks 
on which emery paper or 
cloth is glued. They are 
used to reduce the surfaces 
of metal. Fig. 43 illustrates 
^^^- ■*'• a ring buff used for polishing 

the inside of rings, preferably used on a polishing lathe. 

BULLSEYE. A thick watch resembling a bull's eye in shape. A 
term usually applied to old fashioned English verge watches. 




Burnisher. 54 

BURNISHER. A polished steel or agate tool used for glossing the 
the surface of metals. Fig. 44 is a jewel burnisher. The article to be 
burnished must be first freed from all scratches, for scratches would 
only be brought out more prominently by the use of the burnisher. The 
burnisher must be kept highly polished or you cannot expect to do good 
work with it. Saunier gives the following method of re-facing a bur- 
nisher: Prepare a dry smooth piece of wood, rather thick, and of a 
width equal to the length of the burnisher. On this board carefully glue 
a piece of emery paper of a fineness corresponding to the degree of cut 



Fig. U. 

required, stretching it as even as possible, and turning the edges down 
towards the under side. Then lay the board on a firm smooth surface, 
resting a weight upon it, and allow it to dry. In using this lap, it is fixed 
or allowed to rest against the side of the bench ; holding the burnisher 
with two hands at its extremities, the workman places himself at one end 
of the board, and draws the burnisher along it towards him, maintaining 
the surface quite flat and applying considerable pressure. On reaching 
the nearer end, raise it, and after again placing it on the furthest end, 
draw towards the body, and so on. By proceeding in this manner all 
risk of rounding the angle will be avoided.} 

BUSH. A perforated piece of metal let into a plate to receive the 
wear of pivots. See Bouchon. 

Bushing Pivot Holes. The bush may be either a turned or tapped 
one. A bush is selected as small as the pivot will admit. Open the 
hole in the plate or cock and finish with a rat-tail file. Slightly taper 
the end of the bush with a fine file until it will fit the hole. With a knife 
score the bush just above the edge of the plate and press it firmly into 
the hole. Break off the bush at the point scored and drive it firmly into 
place by means of the bushing punch shown at Fig. 45, and you will 
find your bush is riveted firmly into the plate. Observe the endshake 
your pinion requires and make due allowance when finishing off your 
bushing. In bushing a plate, particularly where the bushing must be 
large, some watchmakers prefer to use a solid wire and drill the hole 
after fitting. If this method is followed be careful to see that you accu- 
rately center the work before drilling, and drill first with a small drill, 
subsequently passing through a larger one, or open up the hole by 
means of a small broach. It is always well to use bushing wire with a 
hole smaller than is ultimately required, and enlarging afterwards while 
the work is centered in the lathe. A tapped bushing is very firm, but 



55 Bushing Punch. 

unless the threads are well made is apt to be out oi center The closing 
hole punch shown in Fig. 45 often obviates the use of a bushing, if skill- 
fully used. 

To Bush a Wheel. A watch will frequently stop because a wheel 
is improperly centered in itself, whereby one side will gear too deep, the 
other too shallow, into the pinion driven by it. Such a wheel likely is 
of the proper size and has good teeth, but the difficulty is its proper cen- 
tering, when fitted to its pinion. The following will be found to be an 
easy way of correction. Take a piece of lead of about the thickness of a 
silver half dollar, and clip and file it round so that it will fit into one of 
the larger steps in a step chuck of an American lathe. Screw it fast into 
the lathe, and while revolving, center and drill a hole of about the size 
of a winding arbor. Then, with a graver, turn out a recess, the size and 
a trifle more than the thickness of the wheel, so that it will fit in exact, 
with its teeth touching the outside of the cut. Drive the wheel from its 
pinion, and broach out the center, so as to take a bush of sufficient 
length, which should be firmly riveted in and filed smooth on the lower 
side. Turn a small groove around the outside of the cut in the lead, 
crowd in the wheel, with a burnisher set as a gavel. This fixes the 
wheel perfectly true on the outside. Now center and drill, leaving a 
little to be turned with a fine polished graver, to fit the same pinion. ^ 
Rivet on, and your wheel is all right. '; ' ■■ ■ - . — ^, , h/Z^-sAL 

BUSHING OR CLOSING HOLE PUNCH. This tool is very 
simple in construction and will be found very useful in repairing both 
watches and clocks. Fig. 45, Goeggel's Bushing and Closing Hole 




Fig. 45. 

Punch, consists of two counter-sunk steel punches, with a post in the 
lower punch. In using, fasten the lower punch in vise and place the 
work over it. They are made in various sizes for watches and clocks 
and are quite inexpensive 

BUSHING WIRE. Hard brass tubing for bushing the pivot holes 
of watches and clocks. This wire is kept by most material houses in the 
various sizes applicable to watch and clock work, and is put up in assort- 
ed sizes. See Bouchon and Bush. 

BUTTING. The touching of the points of the teeth of two wheels 
acting with one another. It is caused by the wheels being planted incor- 
rectly, or by pinions or wheels of improper size. See Depthing Tool 
and Wheels and Pinions, 



Calipers. 



56 



CALIPERS. Compasses having two curved legs or fingers pivoted 
together and used either to measure the inside or outside diameter of 
bodies. Calipers are divided into two c asses, 
known as inside and outside calipers. Thev are 
used by watchmakers for determining the diam- 
eter of staffs and pinions, for testing the truth of 
wheels, etc. Calipers are sometimes used in pois- 
ing balances, the balance staff being centered 
between the points of the calipers. For this pur- 
pose a hole is drilled in the calipers and jewels 
are inserted. Thompson's jeweled calipers, shown 
in Fig. 46, have garnet jewels inserted in the 
points of the arms at one end, and hardened steel 
bearings in 
the other. 

The Euclid / V^'S^"^ \1 

Double Cal- ^ A J 1^ 1, 

Fig. 4i>. ipers are 

very useful tools, as they give on 

the lower limbs an inside measure- Fig. 47. 

ment corresponding to the outside measurement of the upper limbs. 

By adding a stop screw to the common double calipers as shown in Fig. 

47, a very handy tool can be made, as the tool can be opened and 

removed from the work and closed again exactly the same amount. 

See Gaufre. 





CALLET, F. A thorough mechanic and skilled calculator 
was born at Versailles, France, in 1744, and died in 1798. 



He 



CARBORUNDUM. A substitute for diamond powder, used in pol- 
ishing. It is made in two grades. No, i, which is an olive tinted pow- 
der, is used by lapidaries for polishing the facets of gems, as it is so 
much finer than diamond powder that a superior finish can be secured 
on the gem by its use. It is also much cheaper than diamond powder. 
No, 2 is a black powder, which resembles the other in hardness, bur is 
impure and still clieaper. It has extensive use among metal workers as 
an abrasive. Both varieties are used by watchmakers in the various 
polishing operations, as substitutes for diamond powder, bort, diaman- 
tine, etc. 

CAM. A moveable piece of irregular contour, so shaped as to give a 
variable motion to another piece pressing against it by sliding or rolling 
contact. 

CANNON PINION. The pinion to which the minute hand is 
attached ; so called on account of the pipe attachment resembling a 
cannon. 



57 Cap. 

To Tighten a Cannon Pinion. The cannon pinion is sometimes 
too loose upon the center arbor. Grasp the arbor lightly with a pair of 
cutting nippers, and by a single turn of the nippers around the arbor, 
cut or raise a small thread thereon. 

CAP. The part of the case that covers the movement. A thin metal 
cover used in some English, Swiss and German watches to cover the 
movement and attached by studs and a sliding bar or spring. 

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION AND REPULSION. The 
■cause which determines the ascent or descent of certain fluids when in 
contact with certain solid substances. See Oil Sinks. 

CAPPED JEWEL. A jewel having an end stone as shown in 
Fig. 48. In all movements, except the 
cheapest grades, capped jewels are used 
for the balance pivots. 




CARDINAL POINTS. The four 

intersections of the horizon with the -^*.9- ^^• 

meridian and the prime vertical circle, or North and South, East 

and West. 

CARON, PETER AUGUSTUS. A celebrated French watch- 
maker, born January 25th, 1732, in the Rue St. Denis, Paris. When 
nineteen years of age he invented an escapement known in France as the 
double virgule, which may be said to be a combination of the cylinder 
and duplex. He disputed in 1753, with Lepaute, the honor of being the 
inventor, and was awarded the merit of the discovery by the Academy 
of Sciences, on February 24, 1754. -^^ the age of twenty-five he obtained 
a situation at court, under Louis XV., and received permission, on giv- 
iug up the watch business, to style himself Monsieur de Beaumar, and 
under this name he wrote and published two well known works, the 
" Barber of Seville" and " The Marriage of Figaro." 

CARRIER. A piece fastened to work in a lathe and connecting it 
with the face plate. A dog. 

CASE-HARDENING. A process of carbonizing the surface of 
wrought iron, thus converting it into steel. See Steel. 

CASE SPRINGS. The springs in a watch case that cause it to fly 
open and that keep it in position when closed. 



Case Spring Vise. 



58 



Adjustable Case Springs. The Harstrom Adjustable Case Spring- 
shown in Fig. 49 is easily fitted and is said to be a very excellent spring. 
The holder should be fitted securely in a vice and with a three cornered 

file cut down near the rear end on 
the back of the spring enough to rest 
a punch against; then with a tap of 
a hammer you can move it back- 
Fig. 49. wards. To move it forward, rest 

your punch against the end of the spring. Thus you can easily make 
it correspond with the screw hole in the case. Then, near to where it 
protrudes from the holder, bend the spring upward enough to make the 
front end level with the upper edge of holder, or move, if greater 
strength is required. 




CASE SPRING VISE. The Boss case spring tool, shown in Fig. 

50, is a very handy little tool. By turning 
the thumb screw you can bind the spring 
in the desired position and hold it there 




Fig. r,i. 
until the screw is inserted in its proper 
^^' place. It will be found much handier than 

the ordinary plyer-shaped tools designed for the same purpose. Another 
form of case spring vise is Hall's, which is shown in Fig. 51. 



CASE STAKE. A stake made with a large head, generally of 
steel, and used for taking out dents from battered watch cases. The 




Fig. :,2. 
stake show n in Fig. 52 is of the reversible pattern, and while using is 
held in the vise. 



CEMENTS. Cement for use in the lathe can be purchased from 
material dealers generally, at so small a cost that it will scarcely paj the 
watchmaker to bother in preparing it, but circumstances often arise 
where a cement is desirable for other purposes, such as attaching metal 
letters to show windows, etc., and the following recipes will be found 
very reliable : 



59 Cements. 

Acid-Proof Cement. A cement that resists acid is made by melting 
one part India rubber with two parts linseed oil ; add sufficient white 
bolus for consistency. Neither muriatic nor nitric acid attack it; it 
softens a little in heat, and its surface does not dry easily ; which is pro. 
duced by adding one-fifth part litharge. 

Alabaster Cement. Melt alum and dip the fractured faces into it; 
then put them together as quickly as possible. Remove the exuding 
mj^ss with a knife. 

Alabaster Cement, i. Finely powdered plaster of Paris made into a 
paste with water. 2. Melt rosin, or equal parts of yellow rosin and bees- 
wax, then stir in half as much finely powdered plaster of Paris. The 
first is used to join and to fit together pieces of Alabaster or marble, or 
to mend broken plaster figures. The second is to join alabaster, marble, 
and other similar substances that will bear heating. 

Amber Cement. For cementing amber and meerschaum, make a 
thick cream of finely powdered quicklime and white of egg, apply with a 
camel's hair brush, dry slowly and scrape off surplus after thoroughly 
dry. 

Acid Proof Cement. Form a paste of powdered glass and a concen- 
trated solution of silicate of soda. 

Cement for Thin Metal Sheets. Cut isinglass into small pieces 
and dissolve in a little water at a inoderate heat; add a small quantity of 
nitric acid, the quantity being determined by experiment; with too m vie h 
acid the cement dries too slowly, while with too little it does not adhere 
well. 

Cement for Glass and Brass. Melt together i part of wax and 5 
parts of resin, and after melting stir in i part of burned ochre and ^^ part 
plaster of Paris. This is a good cement for attaching letters to windows- 
Apply warm to heated surfaces where possible. 

Cement for Glass and Metals. The following cement is used 
extensivelv for fastening brass and enamel letters to show windows: Mix 
together boiled linseed oil, 5 parts; copal varnish, 15 parts; glue, 5 parts; 
and oil of turpentine, 5 parts; add to this solution 10 parts of slaked lime 
and thoroughly incorporated. 

Cement for Knife and Fork Handles. Melt 2 parts of pitch and stir 
in I part of sand or brick dust; fill the cavity in the handle with the 
mixture, and push in the previously heated tang. 



Cements. 60 

Cement for Paper and Metals. Dissolve dextrine in water, adding 
20 parts of glycerine and 10 parts of glucose. Coat the paper with this 
mixture, and, after rubbing the metal with a piece of onion, attach the 
paper. 

Engravers' Cement. Resin, i part; brick dust, i part; mix with 
heat. 

Fireproof Cement. A very tenacious and fireproof cement for metals 
is said to be made by mixing pulverized asbes*:os with waterglass, to i)e 
had in any drug store; it is said to be steam tight, and resist any tem- 
perature. 

Glass and Metal Cement. Brass letters, and other articles of a like 
naiure, maybe securely fastened on glass windows with the following: 
Litharge, 2 parts; white lead, i part; boiled linseed oil, 3 parts; gum 
copal, I part. Mix just before using; this forms a quickly drying and 
secure cement. 

Gold and Silver Colored Cement. For filling hollow gold and silver 
articles. Consists of 60 parts shellac, 10 parts Venetian turpentine, and 
3 parts gold bronze or silver bronze, as the case may be. The shellac is 
melted first, the turpentine is then added, and finally, with constant 
stirring the gold or silver bronze. 

Jewelers' Cement. Put in a bottle 2 ounces of isinglass and i ounce 
of the best gum Arabic, cover them with proof spirits, cork loosely and 
place the bottle in a vessel of water, and boil it until a thorough solution 
is effected ; then strain for use. 

Metal Cement. Take plaster of t- aris, and mix it to proper thickness 
by using water containing about one-fourth of gum Arabic. This cement 
is excellent for metal exposed to contact with alcohol, and for cementing 
metal to glass. 

Strong Cement. Mix some finely powdered rice with cold water, so 
as to forma soft paste. Add boiling water, and finally boil the mixture 
in a pan for one or two minutes. A strong cement is thus obtained, of a 
white color, which can be used for many purposes. 

Transparent Cement, A good transparent cement for fastening 
watch glasses, etc., in bezels or settings, is made by dissolving 7 parts of 
pure gum Arabic and 3 parts crystalized sugar in distilled 'water; the 
bottle containing the mixture should be placed in a utensil of hot water 
until the mixture assumes the consistency of syrup, and then left well 
corked for use. 




61 Cement Brasses. 

Watchmakers' Cement or Wax. Eight ounces of gum shellac,, 
heated and thoroughly incorporated with one-half ounce of ultramarine, 
makes the strongest and best wax for use on cement brasses and chucks. 

CEMENT BRASSES. Attachments to a lathe to which work is 
fixed by means of cement. These brasses are made in various shapes and 
sizes by tool manufacturers, or the ingenious watchmaker can make them 
for himself during his leisure hours, Figs. 53 and 54. The watchmaker 
should have a supply of these brasses, varying in sizes from one inch to 
the smallest size necessary. Should you have a watch 
that has a broken cock or foot jewel, and among your 
supply you are unable to find one that fits both the 
pivot and the recess in the cock or potence, y:)u will 
Fig. 53. fimi these brasses very useful. If you find a jewel 

that fits the pivot nicely, and the brass setting is too large, select a cement 
brass that is just a trifle smaller than the recess in the potance, cement 
the jewel to the end of the brass, with the flat side of the jewel to the 
brass, so that if the brass setting of the jewel 
is too thick it can be turned to exact thickness 
of the old setting at the same time that the 
diameter is turned. Bring to an exact center ■^*fl'« ^*' 

by the hole in the jewel, by means of a pegwood, and as soon as the 
cement is hard, turn down with a sharp graver. With a full set of these 
brasses a watchmaker can utilize odds and ends, without waiting to send 
for new jewels. The above is only one of many uses to which these 
bi asses may be brought. 

CENTERS. Pins used in conjunction with a lathe for holding work 
while revolving. They are usually made of steel. They are of two 
forms, known as male and female centers. 

Female Centers. These very useful adjuncts to a lathe are easily 
made by any watchmaker. He should have at least six pairs, the largest 
being one-fourth of an inch in diameter, which will accommodate as large 
a piece as you will wish to handle on your watch lathe, viz: winding ar- 
bors for clocks. These female centers are made from steel tapers, the 
same as male centers are made, but instead of turning the end to a sharp 
point they are countersunk. Fig. 55. First place the taper in a chuck and 
turn off the outside and end true; drill a small hole in the center of the 
taper, while the lathe is running, and deep enough so the countersink will 
not reach the bottom of the hole, or one-eighth of an inch deeper than the 
counter-sink. Harden the end only, and after tempering polish off the 
bluing. After you have made all the sizes you require, test all of them 
in your lathe to make sure they did not get out of true in tempering. 



•Centering Attachment. 62 

These female centers are very useful for holding or suspending any 
article in the lathe that is too large to be held in the split chucks. Pivots 
of clocks can be turned and polished very quickly and accurately in these 
centers. 

Almost any kind of large work can be done on a medium sized watch- 
maker's lathe by fitting a face plate to the lathe, say one and three- 
fourths inches in diameter, with four slots, 
and fitted to a chuck with a taper hole to 
receive both male and female centers. 
^'^' ^■^* The taper hole being standard, the centers 

are interchangeable, and with two styles of dogs, almost any kind of 
large clock work can readily be handled. 

These centers prove very useful for many odd jobs. As an example : 
It is a very common occurrence to hear an American clock beat irregu- 
larly, caused by the 'scape being out of round. Select a pair of female 
centers that will admit the ends of the pivots of the 'scape wheel snugly; 
place one center in the taper chuck and the other in the tail stock spindle, 
and suspend the 'scape pinion in these centers; fasten on a dog, run the 
lathe at a high speed and hold a fine, sharp file so it will touch the teeth 
of the 'scape wheel slightly, and in a moment the wheel will be perfectly 
round, after which sharpen up the teeth that are too thick. 

Male Centers. Conicallj pointed pins; the opposite of female cen- 
ters. 

CENTERING ATTACHMENT. The Potter patent self-center- 
ing lathe attachment, shown in Fig. 56, will be found useful in rapidly 
bringing work to an accurate center, when pivoting, starting, etc. 

The attachment, which may be fitted to any make of American lathe, 
consists primarily of the side bed pieces R and D, the upright plate A^ 
and the reversible anti-friction sliding jaws 000. The upright plate A 
is attached to the slide D in such a way that it may be readily raised or 
lowered or adjusted in any other direction at pleasure; and may be set 
with either side facing the lathe head. Of the reversible sliding jaws 
000^ which are made of Phosphor Bronze Anti-Friction Metal, not re- 
quiring the use of oil, four sets of three in a set, are furnished with each 
attachment. These are of different form, as shown at A^ V O U, to 
adapt them to the various kinds of watch work, and are operated in 
radial grooves in the upright plate A^ by means of the rotating lever L, 
which moves the three jaws in and out, to and from the center, or opens 
and closes them in perfect unison. One set of jaws may be withdrawn 
and another set substituted therefor in a few moments. With each 
change of the jaws, however, the plate ^requires readjustment; but 
this, too, may be done in a few moments, as follows: Having previously 
provided yourself with a bit of straight wire or small steel rod, turned to 



63 



Centering Indicator. 



run perfectly true in jour lathe, and having fastened this in the chuck 
in your lathe, loosen the nuts C C so as to give freedom of movement 
to the plate A ; then bring the attachment to proper position on the lathe 

bed and fasten it there; after 
which move the sliding jaws in- 
ward until they bind lightly on 
the bit of straight wire held in 
your chuck, and in this position 
again tighten the nuts C C. 
Once adjusted to accurate center 
in this way no further adjust- 
ment, whatever the size of work 
to be operated upon, is required, 
imtil another change of jaws. 

In use, the end of the work to 
be operated upon is placed in an 
accurate split chuck in the lathe 
and the chuck tightened on it just 
sufficiently to hold it in place and 
to rotate it, the other end being 
supported in the centered bear- 
ing formed by the jaws oo o. In 
^^9- ■">(>■ this position the jaws o o o, or 

such others as for the time may be in use, may be opened and closed 
as often as desired, and each time will instantly bring the work again 
to accurate center. See Best. 




CENTERING INDICATOR. In centering quickly on the universal 
head, this tool is indispensible. It will also be found valuable for other 
work. It is not kept by dealers, and will have to be made by the watch- 
maker. The body of the indica- 
tor is made of sheet brass, and -^<^ -<^ C 
should be about five inches long 
by two inches in width at the 
larger end. The shank C, is 
made to fit in rest holder, and is 
either riveted or soldered to the 
body ; R is steel or copper wire 
sharpened to a fine point, and 
balances on a pivot at i ; ^ is a 
clock hand pivoted to the body 
at I ; 2 and 2 are pivot joints only, and do not go through the body ; fig. C 
will perhaps give a better idea of the end R. To center with this tool, 
unscrew your rest and remove it, then place the shaft C, fig. 57, in rest 
holder and adjust it till the needle point R touches the top of hole as 




Fig. 



Centering Tool. 64 

shown in fig. 2. The index hand will tlien note the variations as the 
head revolves. If too low, the hand will point above center and if high, 
vice versa. 

CENTERING TOOL. A small, steel point used for accurately 



Fig. .56. 

locating centers. Figure 59 illustrates the O. K. centering tool, which is 
made to fit any tailstock spindle or taper chuck. 

CENTER PUNCH. A punch having a sharp point, for marking 



Fig. 59. 

the center of work swung in a lathe, so that it may readily be removed 
and replaced without the trouble of finding the center each time. 

CENTER OF GRAVITY. That point of a body about which all 
its parts are balanced, or which, being supported, the whole body will 
remain at rest, though acted upon by gravity. Webster. 

CENTER OF GYRATION. That point in a body rotating around 
an axis, at which, if a given force were applied, it would produce the same 
angular velocity in a given time as it would if the whole mass of the body 
were collected at that point. Webster. Britten says that a circle drawn 
seven-tenths of its radius on a circular rotating plate of uniform thickness 
would represent its center of gyration. The moment of inertia, or the 
controlling power of balances varies as their mass, and as the square of 
the distance of their center of gyration from their center of motion. 
Although not strictly accurate, it is practically quite near enough in the 
comparison of balances to take their weight, and the square of their 
diameter. 

CENTER OF MOTION. That point which remains at rest while 
all the other parts of a body revolve around it. 

CENTER OF OSCILLATION. That point at which, if the whole 
matter of a suspended body were collected, the time of oscillation would 
be the same. In a long cone suspended from its apex, the center of oscil- 
lation is at four-fifths of its length from the apex, and in a bar suspended 
from one end that point is at two-thirds of its length. A pendulum 



65 Center of Oscillation, 

being irregular in form it is difficult to calculate its center of oscillation 
but it always is situated below its center of gravity. The following 
explanation may aid the student in locating the center of oscillation : 

All know that a simple theoretical pendulum is one where the whole 
weight is centered in one point, suspended from, and oscillating about, 
a fixed point, or center of suspension, A sphere of platinum, suspended 
by a fibre of silk, would probably be the nearest approximation to a per- 
fectly simple pendulum. A compound pendulum is one where the 
weight is not centered in or about one point, but is extended for some 
distance up and down the rod. Suppose there are fixed upon the fibre, 
at equal distances, three platinum balls. From the well-known fact that 
a short pendulum vibrates quicker than a long one, the upper or short 
pendulum will endeavor to make its vibrations in the short time due to 
its length as a pendulum. The middle ball will endeavor to make its 
oscillations in the time its length of support demands, and the lower and 
longest will attempt the slow and regular vibrations of the long pendu- 
lum. Suppose that these three balls, representing three pendulums of 
three different lengths, be drawn aside from the perpendicular 5° and 
suddenly released, the consequence will be that the upper one will have 
made its full excursion by the time the middle one has descended to the 
perpendicular, and before the lower one has arrived there ; the momentum 
of the three balls bending the fibre of silk into such a curve as will accom- 
modate the tendencies of the three balls. 

If the silk fibre be replaced by an inflexible rod, and the now rigid com- 
pound pendulum be drawn aside as before, the upper ball will endeavor 
to hasten forward the middle one to its own speed, and the middle and 
upper one will both combine to hasten the lower one. So also, the mid- 
dle one will retard somewhat the rapidity of the upper one, and the slovv^- 
moving lower one will do its best to restrain the haste of both those above 
it, and the consequence of all these tendencies will be that the lower one 
will be somewhat accelerated, and the upper one proportionally retarded; 
the whole assuming a vibration which is the mean (middle ball) of the 
two extremes, provided the three masses are equal, thus compelling the 
whole to oscillate as a pendulum whose length is that of the middle ball. 
But if the lower ball be the largest, its control over those parts above it 
will be in proportion to its mass and the time of its vibrations will nearly 
coincide with those made by its center of gravity. 

Suppose, again, the largest am.ount of matter to be in the upper ball, 
then will its influence be more potent toward forcing the lower and 
longer pendulums to accommodate their rate to that of the upper one, 
and their vibrations will be thereby increased to a degree which will ap- 
proximate the normal vibrations of that short pendulum. Thus you see 
the difficulty of exactly fixing upon the exact length of any compound 
pendulum by simple computation. Every particle of matter from the 
top of the rod to the lower extremity, which differs in its distance from 



Centering Seconds. 66 

the point of suspension, has its own time for making an oscillation 
about that point; and the greater the number of particles that have an 
equal distance from that point, the greater influence they possess in de- 
termining the time of vibration; in this case, as in republics, the mass 
rules. To obviate these counteracting influences that are constantly at 
work in the oscillations of the compound pendulum, it becomes neces- 
sary to concentrate, as far as possible, all the matter of the pendulum at 
such a distance from the point of suspension as will produce the number 
of vibrations desired, and this center of oscillation will always fall in a 
line produced through the center of gravity and the point of suspension^ 
and will always be below the center of gravity. 

The center of oscillation and suspension are convertible points; that 
is, a pendulum inverted and suspended from the center of oscillation will 
vibrate in the same time. Huygens, the Dutch scientist, discovered this 
remarkable fact, and it affords a ready means of determining experi- 
mentally the length of a compound pendulum, which may be measured 
by means of a platinum or lead ball, suspended by a fibre of silk from 
the same point, and in front of the pendulum to be measured, and of 
such a length that the vibrations will perfectly coincide in time. The 
distance from the point of suspension to the center of the ball (which is 
also the center of oscillation) is nearly the length of that compound pen- 
dulum. 

It should be remembered that the center of oscillation is the point to be 
affected in all compensations for temperature. The difficulty in produc- 
ing a perfect compensation pendulum is to harmonize and bring into 
coincidence the antagonistic tendencies of the center of gravity, center 
of oscillation and moment of inertia, all of which are properties and 
peculiarities of compound pendulums, and must be taken into considera- 
tion by those who are experimenting upon them with the expectation of 
producing any arrangement in advance of those in use at present. 

CENTER SECONDS. See Sweep Seconds. 

CENTER WHEEL. The wheel whose staff carries the minute 
hand. 

CENTER STAFF. The arbor, attached to the center wheel, which 
carries the minute hand. 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. The tendency that revolving bodies 
have to fly from the center. Britten says that when balances are made 
too thin in the rim, they alter in diameter from this cause, in the long 
and short vibrations. 

CHAIN HOOK. A small hook which is attached to each end of a 
fusee chain, to fasten the chain to the barrel and fusee. 



67 Chalk. 

CHALK. To prepare chalk for use for cleaning gilding, etc., pulver- 
ize it thoroughly and then mix it with clean water, in proportion of two 
pounds to the gallon. Stir well and then let it stand about two minutes. 
In this time the gritty matter will have settled to the bottom. Slowly 
pour the water into another vessel, so as not to stir up the sediment. Let 
stand until entirely settled, and then pour off as before. The settlings 
will be prepared chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. Spanish whiting, 
treated in the same way, makes a very good cleaning or polishing pow- 
der. Some watchmakers add a little crocus; it gives the powder a nice 
color at least. 

CHAMFER. To groove. To cut a channel in. To cut or grind in 
a sloping manner anything originally right-angled. To bevel. 

CHAMFERING TOOL. A tool for cutting a bevel or chamfer. 
A tool for cutting a furrow or channel is also known as a chamfering 
tool. 

CHAMOIS. A soft leather used by watchmakers and jewelers, and 
so called because first prepared from the skin of a species of antelope 
known as chamois. 



Chamois, to Clean. Many workshops contain a dirty chamois^ 
leather, which is thrown aside and wasted for want of knowing how to 
cleanse it. Make a solution of weak soda and warm water, rub plenty of 
soft soap into the leather, and allow it to remain in soak for two hours, 
then rub it until quite clean. Afterward rub it well in a weak solution 
composed of warm water, soda and yellow soap. It must not be rinsed 
in water only, for then it will be so hard, when dry, as to be unfit for use. 
It is the small quantity of soap left in the leather that allows it to sepa- 
rate and become soft. After rinsing, wring it well in a rough towfel, and 
dry quickly, then pull it about, and brush it well, and it will become 
softer and better than most new leathers. In using a rough leather to- 
touch up highly polished surfaces, it is frequently observed to scratch 
the work; this is caused by particles of dust, and even hard rouge, that 
are left in the leather, and if removed by a clean brush containing rouge, 
it will then give the brightest and best finish, which all good workmen 
like to see on their work. 

CHARIOT. A brass bar screwed to the pillar plate of a cylinder 
watch to carry the lower pivot of the cylinder, and to afford a seat for 
the balance cock. Slight alterations in the intersection of the cylinder 
and the escape wheel are made by shifting the chariot. 



Chimes. 



68 



CHIMES. A set of bells musically tuned to one another and some- 
times attached to tower clocks, especially in Europe, such clocks being 
known as quarter clocks, or chiming clocks. 

CHIMING BARREL. The cylinder in a chiming clock which 
raises the hammer in the chiming train, by means of projections upon its 
surface. 

CHOPS. Two metal plates which bind the ends of the pendulu.-xi 
suspension spring. 

CHRONOGRAPH. A recording time piece. In modern usage the 
term is applied to watches having a center seconds hand (driven from the 
fourth wheel), which generally beats fifths of a second. The hand is 
started, stopped or caused to fly back by manipulating a push on the side 
of the case. 



CHRONOMETER. 




A portable time piece of superior construction, 
with heavy compensation balance, and usually 
beating half seconds; intended for keeping 
very accurate time for astronomers, watch- 
makers, etc. See Fig. 60. 

Marine Chronometer. A chronometer 
hung in gimbals, for use at sea in determining 
longitude. 



Pocket Chronometer. A pocket watch 
with chronometer escapement. 
Fig. 60. 

CHRONOMETER ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in which 
the escape wheel is locked on a stone carried in a detent, and impulse is 
given by the teeth of the escape wheel to a pallet on the balance staff 
once in every alternate vibration. The French claim the honor of the 
invention of the detached detent, or chronometer escapement, for Pierre 
Le Roy, while the English claim it for John Arnold. The first chron- 
ometer escapements were made with the small spring, or gold spring, 
attached to the roller on the balance staff. F. Berthoud made the 
escapement after this fashion, but Arnold transferred it to the detent. 
The detent, as made by Arnold, worked on a pivoted arbor, having a 
spiral spring around it to bring it back into position after it was released 
by the pallet. Earnshaw iinproved upon Arnold's construction bv doing 
away with the arbor and making the detent and spring in one piece, as 
shown in Fig. Oi. He also improved upon the escape wheel made by 



69 Chronometer Escapement. 

Arnold, whose wheel was made so that the unlocking took place inside 
the wheel, the acting curves of the teeth being raised from the plane of 
the wheel. Earnshaw made the teeth flat, and also changed the direc- 
tion of the pressure during locking. 

Saunier says of the chronometer escapement, that its mode of action 
is simple, but it does not admit of any error in the application of its 
principles, nor any inferior workmanship. It absolutely requires an 
isochronal balance spring and a compensation balance, and should never 
be employed in ordinary watches. Nevertheless, the chronometer 
escapement is adopted wherever the most reliable time is required, and ^. 
among the best manufacturers in the world the good chronometer is 
considered as their finest production. Britten says of the 

ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

A tooth of the escape wheel is at rest on the locking pallet. The 
office of the discharging pallet is to bend the detent so as to allow this 
tooth to escape. The discharging pallet does not press directly on the 
detent, but on the free end of the gold spring, which presses on the tip 
of the detent. 

The balance, fixed to the same staff as the rollers, travels in 
the direction of the arrow around the rollers, with sufficient 
energy to unlock the tooth of the wheel which is held by the locking 
pallet. Directly the detent is released by the discharging pallet, it springs 
back to its original position, ready to receive the next tooth of the wheel. 
There is a set screw to regulate the amount of the locking on which the 
pipe of the detent butts. This prevents the locking pallet being drawn 
further into the wheel. It is omitted in the drawing for clearness. It 
will be observed that the impulse roller is planted so as to intersect the 
path of the escape wheel teeth as much as possible, and by the time the 
unlocking is completed the impulse pallet will have passed far enough in 
front of the escape wheel tooth to afford it a safe hold. The escape wheel, 
impelled by the mainspring in the direction of the arrow, overtakes the 
impulse pallet and drives it on until the contact between them ceases bv 
the divergence of their paths. The wheel is at once brought to rest by 
the locking pallet, and the balance continues its excursion, winding up 
the balance spring as it goes, until its energy is exhausted. The balance 
is immediately started in its return vibration by the effort of the balance 
spring to return to its state of rest. You will notice that the nose of the 
detent does not reach to the end of the gold spring, so that the discharg- 
ing pallet in this return vibration, merely bends the gold spring without 
affecting the locking pallet at all. When the discharging pallet reaches 
the gold spring, the balance spring is at rest; but the balance does not 
stop, it continues to uncoil the balance spring until its momentum is 
exhausted, and then the effort of the balance spring to revert to its 



Chronometer Escapements. 



70 




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Chronometer Escapement. 



normal state induces another vibration; the wheel is again unlocked and 
gives the impulse pallet another blow. 

Although the balance only gets impulse in one direction, the escape 
-wheel makes a rotation in just the same time as with a lever escapement, 
because in the chronometer the whole space between two teeth passes 
■every time the wheel is unlocked. 

By receiving impulse and having to unlock at every other vibration 
only, the balance is more highly detached in the chronometer than in 
most escapements, which is a distinct advantage. No oil is required to 
the pallets and another disturbing influence is thus got rid of. If prop- 
erly proportioned and well made, its performance will be quite satisfactory 
.as long as it is not subjected to sudden external motion or jerks. For 
marine chronometers it thus leaves but little to be desired, and even for 
pocket watches it does well with a careful wearer ; but with rough usage 




Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 



it is liable to set, and many watchmakers hesitate to recommend it on 
this account. It is much more costly than the lever, and would only be 
applied to very high-priced watches, and in these the buyer naturally 
resents any failure of action. Its use in pocket pieces is therefore nearly 
confined to such as are used for scientific purposes, or by people who 
understand the nature of an escapement, and are prepared to exercise 
care in wearing the watch. There is another reason why watchmakers, 
as a rule, do not take kindly to the chronometer escapement for pocket 
work. After the escapement is taken apart, the watch does not so surely 
yield as good a performance as before. In fact, it is more delicate than 
the lever. 



Chronometer Escapement. 72 

CONSTRUCTION AND PROPORTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

For the ordinary 3 inch, two-day, marine chronometer movements^ 
three sizes of escape wheels are used — viz. : .54, .56, and .58 of an inch in 
diameter; for eight-day marine chronometer, the sizes are .48, .50 or .52 of 
an inch. The escape wheel has fifteen teeth, and the diameter of the 
impulse roller is half that of the escape wheel. The roller is planted as 
close between two teeth of the escape wheel as possible, so that theoreti- 
cally the roller intersects the path of the teeth for 24° of the circumfer- 
ence of the wheel. This gives theoretically a balance arc of 45°.* Prac- 
tically it is less; there must be clearance between the roller and wheel 
teeth; an allowance must also be made for the side shake of the pivots. 
In Fig. 61, the impulse pallet is just opposite a tooth of the escape wheel 
when the discharging pallet is resting on the end of the gold spring. The 
balance moves through about 5' to accomplish the unlocking, and by the 
time that is done the impulse pallet will be 5° in advance of the tooth 
and the tooth will drop through this space and more before it reaches the 
pallet, because after the wheel is unlocked it takes some time to get into 
motion at all, and at first its motion is slower than the motion of the pal- 
let, which had not ceased to travel. The drop must be enough lo allow 
the pallet to safely intersect the path of the tooth, and is arranged gen- 
erally as shown, so that the pallet is 5° in advance of the tooth when the 
unlocking is completed. But many authorities insist on even more drop, 
so as to give the impulse more nearly on the line of centres. It is argued 
that the drop is not all mischievous loss of power, as it is in the lever, 
escapement, for with a greater amount of drop the wheel attains a greater 
velocity when it does strike the pallet. However, most makers adhere 
to the 5°, although it may in some instances be advisable to vary it. If 
there is fear of over-banking, the arc of vibration may be reduced by giv- 
ing more drop; and if the vibration is sluggish and the drop can be safely 
reduced the vibration will be increased thereby. 

The body of the escape wheel is thinned down to about one-half for 
lightness. The fronts of the wheel teeth diverge about 20° from a radial 
line so that the tips, being more forward, draw the locking stone safelv 

♦The balance arc is the amount that the edg^e of the impulse roller intersects the path 
of the wheel teeth, and is measured from the center of the balance staff. Figiares 6a 
and 63 show a method of determiningf the relative size of the escape wheel and impulse 
roller for a given balance arc, which is taken from a report in the Horolocrical "Journal^ 
of a most excellent lecture on the chronometer escapement by Mr. Nelson. Figure 61 
(36° of balance arc) is an example of a usual proportion for pocket, and Fig. 63 (45° of 
balance arc) a usual proportion for marine chronometers. Through A B, the given 
centres of escape wheel and balance, draw the line c. From a set off, by means of a 
protractor, 12° (half the distance between two teeth of the escape wheel) on each side 
of the centre line and draw D e. From b set off on each side of the centre line half the 
amount of the given balance arc and draw two other lines, as shown. The circles rep- 
resenting the tips of the escape wheel teeth and the impulse roller are drawn to cut the 
intersections of these four lines. 



73 Chronometer Escapement. 

in. The locking face of the stone is also set at a sufficient angle to ensure 
perceptible draw. The edge of the impulse roller acts as a guard to pre- 
vent the wheel teeth passing in the event of accidental unlocking at the 
wrong time. There is a crescent-shaped piece cut out of the roller to 
clear the teeth of the wheel. It should be verj little behind the pallet 
arid less than the distance between two teeth of the escape wheel in front 
of it, to avoid the danger of running through, or passing two teeth, when 
such accidental unlocking occurs. It is important to see that there is 
enough cut out in front of the pallet to clear the wheel tooth at all times. 
When the balance is traveling very quickly — i. e., with an unusually 
large vibration — the pallet gets a long way in front of the tooth before 
the tooth starts, and then if the crescent is not cut far enough beyond 
the face of the pallet, the tooth would butt on the roller. 

The radius of the discharging pallet is a trifle less than one-half that 
of the impulse pallet. If made too small the locking stone cannot return 
quick enough to catch the tooth. 

The detent is made very light, and of about the proportion shown in 
the drawing. The spring of the detent is thinned down so that when the 
root is fixed and it stands out horizontally, one pennyweight hung from 
the pipe deflects it about a quarter of an inch. If the spring is made too 
thin, it will cockle and give trouble, The detent may very easily be 
made too long from the point where it bends to the locking pallet, and 
would then be too sluggish and allow the wheel to trip by not returning 
quick enough after the unlocking to receive the next tooth of the wheel. 
A very good rule is to have the distance from the shoulder of foot to 
pipe equal to the diameter of the wheel. 

The escape wheel is of hard, hammered brass, the rollers of steel. The 
detent of steel, carefully tempered, with the point of the horn left softer 
to allow of bending. The pallets are all of sapphire or ruby, fastened in 
with shellac. A brass plug is fitted in to occupy the space in the pipe of 
detent not filled by the locking pallet. The gold spring is hammer- 
hardened. 

POCKET CHRONOMETER. 

The escape wheel for pocket chronometers varies froin .28 to .35 in 
diameter. The impulse roller is made larger in proportion to the escape 
wheel than in the marine chronometer, so as to lessen the tendency of 
the escapement to set. If the chronometer escapement is brought to rest 
by external motion just as the unlocking is taking place, // must set^ for 
the balance spring is then quiescent. In the lever escapement the tooth 
of the escape wheel is in the middle of the impulse plane of the pallet 
when the balance spring is quiescent, and in this respect the lever has 
the advantage. If the velocity of the balance in a chronometer is much 
reduced when the unlocking is completed, then a large impulse roller is 
of great assistance to the wheel in overcoming the inertia of the balance. 



Chronometer Escapement. 74 

As the diameter of the roller is increased, the balance arc, and also the 
intersection of the path of the wheel teeth by the impulse pallet, is 
decreased. The velocity of the edge of the roller, too, more nearly 
approaches the velocity of the wheel tooth, so that less of the power is 
utilized. It is, therefore, not prudent to adopt a much less balance arc 
than 28° or 30°. 

The tendency of pocket chronometers to set is also lessened by adopt- 
ing a quick train ; 18,000 is the usual train, but they are occasionally 
made with 19,200 by having sixteen teeth in the escape wheel instead of 
fifteen. This seems to be an objectionable way of getting the quick train. 
The teeth of the escape wheel being closer together, a smaller roller 
must be used to get the same intersection, and as there is less time for 
the detent to return there is great danger of mislocking. 

For the convenience of getting the seconds hand to jump half-seconds, 
a 14,400 train is sometimes adopted in pocket chronometers. In this case 
the escape wheel has twelve teeth, the numbers of the rest of the train 
remaining the same. 

The other parts of the pocket chronometer escapement are similar to 
those of the marine chronometer. 

TO EXAMINE THE ESCAPEMENT. 

See that the wheel is true and the teeth smooth and perfect, and that 
the rollers properly fit the staff. See that the end shakes and side shakes 
are correct. See that the " lights " between the wheel teeth and ^the 
edge of the roller are equal on both sides when the wheel is flocked. If 
they are not, the foot of the detent must be knocked a trifle to or from 
the center of the roller till the lights are equal. If the light is more than 
sufficient for clearance the roller must be warmed to soften the shellac, 
and the impulse pallet moved out a little. If the light is excessive there 
will be too much drop on the locking after the wheel tooth leaves the 
impulse pallet, and with a large drop there is danger of tripping. 

To ensure safe locking the detent should be set on so that when the 
banking screw is removed, and the locking pallet is free of the wheel 
teeth, it will just spring in as far as the rim of the wheel. 

In pocket chronometer escapements it is especially necessary to see 
that the face of the locking stone is angled so as to give perceptible 
draw. Many pocket chronometers fail for want of it. 

The gold spring should point to the center of the roller. Bring the 
balance around till the discharging pallet touches the gold spring pre- 
paratory to unlocking, and notice how far from that point the balance 
moves before the gold spring drops off" the face of the pallet. Then 
reverse the motion of the balance, and see if the same arc is traveled 
through from the time the back of the pallet touches the gold spring 
until it releases it. If not, the horn of the detent must be bent to make 
the action equal. 



75 Chronometer Escapement. 

Bring the discharging pallet on to the gold spring, and let it bend the 
detent so that the locking stone is as much outside the wheel as it was 
within when the wheel was locked. The gold spring should then drop 
off the discharging pallet. Make it to length, sloping off the end from 
the side on which the pallet falls to unlock, and finish it with great care 
The gold spring should be thinned near its fixed end as much as possible 
and the detent spring thinned if it is needed. The judgment of the 
operator must determine the proper strength in both cases. The nose of 
the detent horn should be nicely flattened and the corners rounded off. 

The locking pallet should not be perfectly upright. It should lean a 
little from the center of the wheel, and a little toward the foot of the 
detent, so that the locking takes place at the root of the stone, and then 
the action of locking and unlocking does not tend so much to buckle the 
detent. The face of the impulse pallet, too, should be slightly inclined 
so that it bears on the upper part of the wheel teeth. By this means the 
impulse pallet will not mark the wheel in the same spot as the locking 
pallet. 

Try if the escape wheel teeth drop safely on the impulse pallet by 
letting each tooth in succession drop on, and after it has dropped, turn 
the balance gently backward; you can then judge if it is safe by the 
amount the balance has to be turned back before the tooth leaves the 
pallet. If some teeth do not get a safe hold, the impulse roller must be 
twisted round on the arbor to give more drop. 

If the escapement is in beat, the balance, when the balance spring is 
at rest, will have to be turned around an equal distance each way to start 
the escapement. When the balance spring is in repose, the back of the 
discharging pallet will be near the gold spring, and if the balance is 
moved around until the gold spring falls off the back of the pallet and 
then released, the escapement should start of itself; and in the other 
direction also, if the balance is released directly the wheel tooth leaves 
the face of the impulse pallet, the escapement should go on of itself, 

Munger's Improved Chronometer Escapement. In this escape- 
ment, which is illustrated in Fig. 64, the detent and staff are in one 
piece, with a notch in the head to hold the locking jewel. The detent 
arm has a hole through it to receive the detent staff, fitting friction 
tight, so that the detent and arm can be set at the proper angle to 
each other, and then the staff driven down to the shoulder. These 
should not fit so tightly that they cannot be separated without danger 
•of breaking, but so firmly as not to be moved out of proper position 
to each other by use or handling, etc. Figure 64 shows the escape- 
ment and impulse pallet of the usual construction. The diameter 
of the pallet should not be less than six-tenths (.6) the diameter of the 
escapement, or larger than two-thirds the size of the wheel. A a shows 
the line of centers of the escape wheel and balance; b b the circle of 



Chronometer Escapement. 



76 



depthing of the escapement and detent from the balance holes; cc extends 
from the intersection of the periphery of the wheel with the line a a, and 
the point of the third tooth of the wheel across the circle l> b. At the 
intersection of the lines b b and c c is the point of location of the detent 
pivots (a slight variation from this point is not important). The discharge, 
or unlocking pallet, shown bj the dotted lines, is a light bar or arm with 
a notch at one end to hold its jewel, and is the same length or diameter 
as the impulse pallet (or nearly so). In planting the escapement, first 
mount the wheel on its pinion and top it just enough to have it round. 
Then use a temporary brass or steel disc, the size required for the impulse 

pallet, place it on the 
balance staff, and adjust 
the depth of it and the 
wheel in the depth tool,, 
and mark the circle b b. 
Locate the escape wheel 
and detent pivots the dis- 
tance apart indicated by 
the drawing, and pivot 
them in, as also the bal- 
ance, in their proper posi- 
tions. In the brass disc 
cut a notch large enough 
to allow the escape-wheel 
tooth to pass through as in 
escaping. As the detent 
jewel is too long to allow 
of the proper locking of 
the wheel, let a tooth of 
Fig. 64*. the wheel rest on the lock- 

ing face of the detent (the notch in the disc allows this), and the distance 
of the entrance tooth from the disc readily shows about how much of the 
detent jewel has to be ground off before beginning to polish its locking 
face. Two or three trials will bring it so near that the final polishing 
will make the locking correct. All this really takes but a few minutes 
to do. 

To obtain the adjustment of the detent use a special tool. The spindle 
is hollow, and the front end reamed out to take in a small brass taper 

*Fig. I represents a plan, or face view, of the escapement, showingf the method of 
locating' the relative positions of the balance, escape wheel and detent pivots. 
Fig. 2 is an elevation of the detent, detached from the detent arm 
Fig. 3 is a plan view of the detent arm and gold spring attached to it. D, eccentric 
banking screw to adjust the position of the detent arm and depth of locking the escape 
wheel. The distance of the detent pivot from the escape wheel can be determined and 
laid out with sufficient accuracy as one-fifth to one-fourth of the distance shown in the 
drawing. 




77 Chronometer Escapement. 

that also fits a chuck in jour lathe-spindle; this small taper is drilled out, 
with as large a hole as convenient, from the back end to within about 
one-eighth of an inch of the front. It is then put in the lathe-spindle and 
the front end turned small enough to be out of the way of the lap, 
and carefully centered and drilled through into the large hole, and 
broached out just enough to hold the detent staff firmly by friction, while 
grinding and polishing the locking surface ; and it is readily removed 
from the taper to try the detent for the correct locking. 

In making this adjustment, the arbor carrying the polishing lap should 
be held firmly, (by means of a loose button on the front end of the spin- 
dle) against the adjusting screw r, and this screw turned a little at a 
time, as the length of the detent jewel is shortened, so that the locking 
face will be a true circle from the pivots; for if the locking corner is 
much rounded off, or beveled, the pressure of the wheel against it would 
push the detent out, and cause it to trip or unlock at the wrong time. If 
the circle is true from the pivots, no amount of pressure of the wheel 
against the detent can push it out or release it. 

With the size of discharge pallet used, the unlocking action can begin, 
if desired, from l^ to ^ of the whole motion of the detent arm before 
the line of centers, and is adjusted by the eccentric banking screw d. 
The relative position or angle of the detent to the arm is then so adjusted 
as to give the right amount of locking to the escape wheel, (which can 
be very shallow). The gold spring is then shortened, so that it will be 
released from the discharge pallet when the escape wheel tooth and im- 
pulse jewel are about on the line of centers ; if the gold spring is too 
short, the detent will return too soon, so that the inside face of the lock- 
ing jewel will strike the point of the tooth of the escape wheel, and the 
wheel drag along the face of the jewel until the detent arm rests against 
the banking screw d. This must be avoided. 

The discharge pallet, of course, must be set so as to unlock at the right 
position of the impulse pallet, but less drop is required in this escape- 
ment than in the usual construction. 

The spiral return spring on the detent staff, under the arm, should 
have tension enough to return the detent to its banking, when it is 
moved a trifle, with all the pressure on it from the train that the main- 
spring can give. Use five or six coils for the return spring, and put on 
the spring so that it opens when the detent is moved to unlock, as this 
gives a trifle quicker action to start the detent on its return. The detent, 
all complete, is so very light that there is no recoil as it strikes the bank- 
ing, and no jarring or outside motion will cause it to trip, as all others 
are liable to do. 

The extreme lightness of the detent with its locking so near the pivot, 
lessens the friction so greatly that the discharge pallet can be of the 
same diameter as the impulse pallet, and thus greatly lessen the angle or 
extent of motion required to start it going; and it also admits of very 



Chronoscope. 



78 




shallow locking, without the least danger of tripping, and requires much 
less strength of mainspring than any other detached escapeinent. 

CHRONOSCOPE. A clock or watch in which the time is indicated 
by the presentation of numbers through holes in the dial. 

CHUCK. A mechanical contrivance for holding work in a lathe. 
True chucks are the most important adjuncts to a watchmaker's bench. 
A good lathe and untrue chucks will result in inferior work, while a 
cheap lathe with true chucks will permit of some good results. Chucks 
hold the work truest that come the nearest fitting the hole in them. Trying 
to hold work too large or too small, will soon get them out of true, and 
often make the workman dissatisfied with his chucks, his work, himself 

and his lathe. Wax is the only sure thing 
for fine staff and pivot work, although 
there are many substitutes that do very 
well, and with the aid of them a good 
Fig. 65. workman can turn out a very fine job. 

With a good lathe, true chucks and sizes to suit, and a reasonable 
amount of practice, first class work can be done with split chucks. One 
chuck or tool of any kind seldom does all kinds of work and does it well. 
Fig. 65 is a good example of the modern split wire chuck, such as is 
furnished to go with all American made lathes. 

The table of American wire chucks on page 79 will prove useful to 
those persons who contemplate purchasing chucks for lathes of foreign 
manufacture. 

Adjustable Chuck. The Hopkins patent adjustable chuck, shown in 
Fig. 66, is designed to grip and hold firmly and accurately any size of 
work from the smallest staff to the largest pinion, watch wheels of all 
sizes, mainspring barrels and other large 
work, and can be adjusted to any make 
of lathe by simply placing it friction 
tight, on a plug chuck fitted properly 
to the lathe. In using this chuck for 
staff's, pinions, wire, etc., fasten a V piece 
7, of proper size, in the hole in attachment 
6, taking care that both the V and the 
seat in which it rests are free from chips, 
dirt, etc Then lay your work in the V 
and fasten it there by means of the slid- 
ing jaw above it. This done, place the 
attachment on the face of the chuck body, with the disc slipped under 
the heads of the two spring bolts, and then spin the work to center, 
same as when using wax. After centering thus, fasten the disc to place 
by tightening the nuts on the back ends of the spring bolts. 



H»tL. 




79 



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Chuck. 



80 



For holding work by the web of the wheel, place the wheel under the 
screw cap on the face attachments and screw the cap down firmly on 
it, with the staff or pinion projecting outward through the center hole. 
This done proceed the same as when using No. 6. 

For mainspring barrels and like work, use attachment ii, and place a 
bit of broken mainspring between the work and the ends of the three 
binding screws, and tighten the screws down on that instead of directly 
on the work. 

Arbor Chuck. A screw chuck on the end of which is a threaded 




Fig. 67. 

arbor for the reception of saws, laps, etc., which are clamped in position 
firmly by means of a nut or thumb screw as shown in Fig, 66. 

Bezel Chuck. The Snyder patent Bezel Chuck, shown in Fig. 68, 
was originally intended for holding bezels only, but it is now made so 
that it will hold watch plates, coins, etc., and is adjustable to any size. 
It can be fitted to any lathe and requires but very little practice to use it, 
as it is extremely simple and any one who uses a lathe can make or 
repair bezels in a workmanlike manner. It holds the work as in a vise, 
and no amount of turning or jarring will loosen the jaws, while it may 
be opened and closed instantly by simply turning the milled nut behind 
the faceplate, thus enabling the operator to turn and fit a bezel perfectly, 
by trying on the case as many times as necessary. It 
holds the bezel by either groove, so that the recess may 
be turned out when too shallow or too small for the glass, 
or the bezel may be inverted and turned away when it 
rests too hard on the dial. It will be found especially 
useful in turning out the inevitable lump of solder from 
the recess in the bezel, after soldering and in fitting to 
case, as the process of soldering generally makes the 
bezel shorter; and consequently it will not fit on the case. 
Fig. 68. It also renders the operation of polishing bezels after 

soldering, but a few minutes' work. In turning out the recess for glass 
in bezels, especially heavy nickel bezels, it will prove a friend indeed, 
when for instance, you look through your stock of flat glasses and find 
none to fit, but have one that is just too large. All watchmakers know 
that if the groove in the bezel is imperfect it is apt to break the glass. 
The chuck is also useful as a barrel closer, holding work while engrav- 
ing, and inany other uses that will present themselves to the watch or 
case repairer. 




81 



Chuck. 




Fi^. 69. 




,h 



Cement Chuck. The Spickerman patent cement chuck, shown in 

Fig. 69, is a very handy device, as it holds and centers accurately any 

wlieel in a watch while drilling, polisliing or fitting new staffs or pinions, 

and all danger of injuring wheels is 

obviated. It fits all kinds of American 

or Swiss lathes. The holder shown in 

Fig. 70 at a, is turned down to nearly 

the size of the screw for the lathe 

and the screw cut so the holder 

will set as close as possible to the^ 

lathe. The face of the holder is( 

then turned perfectly true. Put 

wheel to be centered in cap c, as 

I 
near to center as convenient and 

screw on b. Then place cement 

face of chuck b against face of 

holder a on the lathe and with a 

lamp, warm the cement between 

the surfaces, holding the chuck 

with a stick against the pivot of wheel in the cap, and it will move 

to an exact center as soon as warmed sufficiently. New cement 

should be added occasionally between the surfaces, as it hardens 

and burns away and does not center as well as when new. Fig. 

69 shows chuck with wheel inside ready for drilling. See also 

Cejnetit Brasses. 

Chuck Stepping Device. In this device, shown in Fig. 71, A 
rests in chuck slightly less than diameter of work. B tightens in 
rear end of draw-in-spindle. Turning c regulates depth of step. 

By the use of this tool any wire chuck will accurately serve as 
a step chuck. It is a device of great service to the watchmaker 
when used and understood. It enables him to make a step in 
any wire chuck of any depth he may wish, and will push out the 
work if desired. It is very useful many times for a stop for mark- 
ing or cutting off when you want a number of pieces of the same 
length or kind. Many object to the stepped chuck for general 
use, objections which this device obviates. 

Conoidal Chuck. A wire chuck which has a conoidal shape in 

lieu of the shoulder usually left 

on wire chucks for the bend in 

the lathe head. Fig. 72 illus- 7,7^72. 

trates the usual form of conoidal 

Fig. 12. chucks. 

Crown Chuck. A chuck for holding watch crowns while undergoing 

repairs of various kinds. Figure 73 illustrates the Dale chuck, wliich is 




Chuck. 



82 




Fig. 73. 



made on the lines of the ordinary split wire chuck, a large recess being 

turned in the end for the recep- 



tion of the crown. The draw-in 
of the chuck holds the crown 
firmly in place. Fig. 74 illus- 
trates the Johanson chuck, which 
is intended to hold all sizes of 
crowns, from the smallest to the largest. 
The figure clearly shows the adjustment of 
parts. This chuck is manufactured in two 
styles, one like Fig. 74, which is ready to 
insert into a number 40 wire chuck of 
an American lathe, while the other style is 
mounted on a regular chuck and is always 
ready to insert into the lathe head, the 
same as an ordinary split chuck. 




Pig. 74. 



Dead Center Chuck. By the use of this chuck, shown in Fig. 75, the 
work can be run on dead centers 
as well as by the bow or verge 
lathe, and the motion will be 
continuous. 

Drill Chuck. A small chuck 





Fig. 7f>. Fig. 75. 

for holding drills, made to fit in tail-stock spindles or taper chucks. Fig. 
76 illustrates the Gem Pivot Drill Chuck. 



Jeweling Chuck. The Hutchinson Jeweling Chuck, which is shown 
in Fig. 77, is intended as a substitute for wax, when manipulating 
jewels. The cut represents a full size chuck, which 
is made similar to the ordinary split chuck, but has 
an adjustable center which can be moved backward 
or forward by means of the screw in the rear, and 
is used to support the jewel while in place in the 
chuck. They are made in three" sizes. Another 
form of jeweling chuck is shown in Fig. 78, and is 
known as the Deuss Chuck. It is a self-centering 
chuck which will hold all sizes of jewels and fits the 
^vheel or step chucks of all American lathes. 

Fig. 7S. 

Pivoting Chuck. The Gem patent pivoting chuck, shown in P'igs. 79 
and 80, is intended as a substitute for wax for pivoting and like work. 




83 



Chuck. 



By the means of the ball b, placed between the two sliding sockets c c, 
with the several other parts as represented in Fig. 79, a combination of 
sliding and ball and socket movements in connection with a spring pump 
center, is obtained. A set of ten or more, supplementary chucks ^^ witli 
different sizes of center holes, and attachment w, for all sizes of wiieels, 
are furnished with each chuck. The supplementary chuck^, in the form 




Fig. 79. 

of a small split chuck, is made to fit into a hole with taper mouth in the 
center of the ball 3, and is drawn into place and the work fastened firmly 
in it by means of the binding nut m, which screws on to a projection 
extending outward from front side of the ball. 

To use this chuck proceed as follows: Remove the nut m, and give 
freedom to the working parts by loosening the large back nut k. Then 
to bring the hole through the ball Z>, into line, spin the ball to center, first 
at the base of the projecting screw and then at the mouth of the hole 
through it, and in this position again fasten the parts, by tightening the 
nut A'. Then give freedom to the pump center by slightly loosening the 
set screw/. When doing this, hold your finger against the front of the 
chuck, to prevent the center rod from shooting out of its place when 




Fig. 80. 

freed. Then having placed a supplementary chuck i;*-, of proper size, in 
its place in the chuck, and your work in it, with its back end resting 
properly in the countersink in the end of the pump center, fasten it there 
by screwing the cap 7n down snugly over it, using a small lever pin when 
necessary for this purpose, but not with undue force. Then again loosen 
the nut k and spin the work to center at its outer end; and then tighten 
both the nut><^ and set screw/. In tightening the set screw/, make sure 
it is so tightened as to prevent the pump center from slipping from place 



Chuck. 



84 



when working. If from tightening the screwy', it is found that tlie work 
has been thrown in any degree away from true center, loosen the nut k^ 
leaving the pump center fast, and again spin to center, and fasten as 
before. All of which after a little practice may be done, and the work 
be brought to absolute truth in a few moments. 

In using attachment n for wheels, the nut 7n and chuck ^ are removed, 
and n substituted therefor; the work being held on the face of the attach- 
ment by flat headed screws that grip the arms of the wheel. For cylin- 
der escape wheels a special attachment n is furnished. The best thing 
to use when spinning work to enter in the chuck, is a bit of peg wood of 
wedge shape at one end. The countersinks in the ends of the pump 
center should in all cases be carefully tested, and if need be trued up in 
the lathe in which the chuck is to be used. In doing this, use a good, 
fine-pointed sharp graver, and make sure the countersink is perfectly 
true. The same rules in regard to truth in the countersink, and having 
the work rest properly in it, are to be observed in using this chuck as 
when using wax. 

Screw Chuck. A solid chuck having a threaded hole in the end for 
the reception of cement brasses, laps, etc., as shown in Fig. 8i. 






Fig. 81. 



Fig. 82. 



Shoulder Chuck. A chuck having a large opening in the end with 
square shoulders for the work to rest upon as show^n in Fig. 82. 



Step or Wheel Chucks. These chucks are usually made in sets of 
five, each chuck having nine steps, giving fortv-five different sizes. 
These chucks are very useful in holding main spring barrels, to fit in the 

cap of the barrel, should it become 

out of true. They are also valuable 

in truing up barrels of English lever 

watches, that are damaged owing to 

the breakage of a main spring. Thev 

are also very useful in holding almost 

any wheel in a watch, but particularlv 

convenient in fitting a center wheel 

to a pinion, or in making sure that 

^'V/- •^•^- the hole in the wheel is in the center. 

These chucks are made by the various lathe manufacturers and are all 

similar to Fig. 83, and will hold wheels from .^ to 2.26. 




85 



Chuck Box. 



Taper Chuck. A solid chuck having a large opening for the recep- 
tion of tapers, centers, laps, etc., ai> shown in Fig. 84. 



11 


1 






Fig. 84. 

CHUCK BOX. A circular box with lid, for holding chucks. They 
are usually made of cherry or mahogany. By keeping your chucks in a 




Fig. 85. 

box similar to that shown in Fig. 85, you can find a chuck of the desired 
size in a moment and the chucks are less liable to be damaged than when 
kept in a drawer with miscellaneous tools. 

CIRCULAR ERROR. In a pendulum clock the difference of time 
caused by the pendulum following a circular instead of a cycloidal path. 



CLAMPS. Movable pieces of brass, lead, leather or cork attached to 
^he jaws of a vise while holding objects that would be injured by the vise 
jaws. 



Cleansing-, Etc. 86 

CLEANSING, PICKLING AND POLISHING. 

To Clean Pendulums. Brass pendulum bobs are often found with 
black stains upon them that prove very obstinate to remove. Heat the 
bob moderately, touch the stains with a brush dipped in nitric acid, rub 
with a linen rag and again heat moderately. 

To Clean Silver. Articles of silver, either solid or plated, are quickly 
and easily cleaned by dipping in a moderate concentrated solution of 
potassium cyanide and then thoroughly rinsing in water. Jewelers will 
lind ii very convenient to have three stone jars, with tight fitting covers, 
to exclude all dirt. Label the jars "Cyanide," " ist Water" and 
" Second Water.' In these, large pieces of silverware can be cleaned 
with ease by dipping into the cyanide, then into jar number one and 
then jar number two. Dry with a soft linen rag and the articles will be 
found free from all stains. 

To Clean Nickel. The nickel plates of watches are sometimes found 
to have rust stains upon them. These can be removed by rubbing the 
spot with grease, allowing them to stand for a few days, and rubbing 
thoroughly with a cloth moistened with ammonia. In obstinate cases, 
repeat the operation or touch the stains with dilute hydrochloric acid 
and rub thoroughly. Rinse in clean water and polish. A mixture of 
fifty parts of rectified alcohol and one part of sulphuric acid is also valu- 
able for cleaning nickel plates. Immerse for ten or fifteen seconds, no 
longer, rinse in alcohol, and dry in sawdust. 

To Clean Brass. To clean old brass, especially small figures, paper 
knives, etc., immerse them in a mixture of one part of nitric acid and 
half part of sulphuric acid. Allow them to remain a short time, 
rinse thoroughly in cold water, dry in sawdust and polish with Vienna 
lime, when they will appear like new. 

Pickling of Metals. Metals are pickled for the purpose of 
removing the oxide and producing a lustrous surface. An excellent 
pickle for brass consists of ten parts of water and one of sulphuric 
acid. Dip into this pickle, wash, dry, and immediately dip into a second 
pickle consisting of two parts of nitric acid and one of sulphuric acid 
and rinse thoroughly. This dissolves the zinc from the brass, and gives 
the metal a brilliant surface. All pickling operations with either hot or 
cold pickle should be carried on in the open air or in the draft of a well 
drawing chimney, as the vapors arising from the acids are very injurious. 
In order to retain the luster, a good transparent varnish should be 
applied. 



87 Cleansing, Etc. 

Pickle for German Silver. To twelve parts of water add one part of 
nitric acid; immerse the article in this, quickly remove, and place in a 
mixture of equal parts of sulphuric and nitric acid, rinse thoroughly in 
water and dry in sawdust. In all cases of pickling it is essential that all 
traces of acid be removed by frequent washings in clean water. 

Pickle for Gold Alloys. Gold alloys, especially those containing 
copper, assume an unsightly dark brown exterior, owing to the copper 
oxide generated by the repeated glow heating necessary during work. 
In order to remove this the object must be pickled, and either highly 
diluted sulphuric or nitric acid is used for the purpose, according to the 
color the article is designed to have. 

If working with an alloy consisting only of gold and copper, either 
sulphuric or nitric acid may be used indifferently, since gold is not 
attacked by either of these acids, while copper oxide is easily decom- 
posed thereby, and after having been pickled, the article will assume 
the color of pure gold, because its surface is covered with a layer of the 
pure metal. 

If the alloy is composed of pure gold and silver however, only nitric 
acid can be employed, and the article is left immersed in it only for a 
short time; this acid dissolves a very small portion of the silver, and the 
article also assumes the color of pure gold. 

When working with an alloy which, besides the gold, contains both 
copper and silver, the process of pickling may be varied in accordance 
with the color desired to be given to the article. If the pickling is per- 
formed in sulphuric acid, the copper alone is dissolved, the article as- 
suming a color corresponding to a gold-sih'er alloy, which now consti- 
tutes the surface of the article. 

If nitric acid is used it will dissolve the silver as well as the copper 
and in this case a pure gold color is produced. 

Pickling is done bv first feebly glow heating the article and cooling it; 
this operation is for the purpose of destroying any fat from the hands or 
other contamination adhering to the article. If it was soldered with 
some easily-tlowing solder, this glow-heating must be omitted, but it 
may be cleansed from impurities by immersing it at first into very strong 
caustic lye, and rinsing it with water; it is then laid into the acid. 

The acids are employed in a dilute stat^, taking forty parts water to 
one part cot7centrated sulphuric or nitric acid. If more articles than one, 
they had best be laid beside each other in a porcelain or stoneware dish, 
the diluted acid is poured over them, and some article is lifted out from 
time to time to watch the course of proceedings, whether it has assumed 
a yellow color. 

When to satisfaction, they are rinsed with clean water and dried. 
While pickling for the purpose only of causing the color peculiar to 
gold to appear, the process of coloring has for its object to lend the 



Cleansing, Etc. 88 

appearance of very fine gold to an article of an indifferent alloy. Various 
mixtures may be employed for the purpose, and we give two receipts 
below which are very appropriate : 

Mix two parts saltpeter, I part table salt and six parts alum with 614 
parts water, and place in a porcelain dish for heating. As soon as you 
notice that the mixture begins to rise, add i part of muriatic acid, raise 
the whole to boiling and stir with a glass rod. 

The article to be colored, and previously treated with sulphuric acid, 
as specified, is suspended to a hook, either of sufficiently thick platinum 
wire or glass ; it is then introduced into the rather slow boiling bath, and 
moved around in it. It is to be taken out in about three minutes, and 
rinsed in clean water, inspecting its color at the same time. If not to 
satisfaction, it is returned to the bath, and this withdi^awing it or intro- 
ducing is repeated until the desired color is obtained. By the latter im- 
mersions the article is left only one minute at a time in the fluid. 

When sufficiently colored the article, after rinsing, will be of a high 
yellow and mat color; it is washed repeatedly in water to remove the last 
traces of the bath, and then dried in hot boxwood sawdust. 

In place of drying in sawdust the article may also be dipped in boiling 
Avater, leaving it in for a few seconds; the adhering water will evaporate 
almost instantaneously. 

The second coloring method consists in pouring water over a mixture 
of 115 parts table salt and 230 nitric acid, so that the salt is dissolved ; it 
is then to be heated until a dry salt residue is again present. This resi- 
due is mixed with 172 parts fuming muriatic acid and heated to boiling 
for which purpose a porcelain vessel is to be used. 

As soon as the pungent odor of chlorine'gas begins to evolve, the 
article to be colored is immersed, and left for about eight minutes in the 
f^uid for the first time; in other respects, a similar treatment as specified 
above, is also used for this method ; if the article colored was polished 
previously, a subsequent polishing is unnecessary. 

On account of the vapors evolved by the coloring baths, which are 
very dangerous to health, the operations should be performed either 
under a well-drawing flue, or what is still better, in open air. — Goldsck 
Miedekunst. 

Polishing Agents. Various polishing agents are used by watchmak- 
ers, jewelers, gold and silversmiths, a few of which are here described. 
Where the article will admit of it, the best results are obtained by polish- 
ing in the lathe. For this purpose the watchmaker should not use his 
regular lathe, but should have for the purpose what is known as a polish- 
ing lathe, fitted with its various attachments in the shape of scratch- 
brushes, buffs, etc. 

Ferric Oxide. This material is used in its natural state and also pre- 
pared artificially under various names, such as crocus, red stuff and rouge 



89 Cleansing, Etc. 

It is used for polishing fine articles of steel, gold, silver, copper and 
bronze. 

Tin Putty is an artificial compound prepared from glowing oxalate of 
tin, which is obtained by decomposing tin salt with oxalic acid. 

Tripoli. A grav-white or yellowish powder, which is made from the 
shells of microscopic organisms. It is used for polishing soft metals, 
first with oil, and then dry. 

Lime. This material is used in the burned and unslaked state. A 
popular variety is known as the Vienna lime. See that heading. 

Belgian Polishing Powder. This powder is used for polishing articles 
of silver and silver plated ware. It consists of a mixture of 250 parts of 
whiting, 117 parts elutriated pipe-clay, 62 parts white lead, 23 parts white 
magnesia, and 23 parts rouge. 

English Silver Soap. This mixture, which is used for polishing sil- 
verware, is prepared as follows: Dissolve 2 partsof castile soap in 2 parts 
of soft water over a fire; when melted remove and stir in 6 parts of fine 
whiting, pour into moulds and allow it to cool. A little rouge may be 
added as coloring matter if desirable. 

English Silver Paste. Three parts of perfumed vaseline, 5 parts of 
whiting, I part of burnt hartshorn, and one of pulverized cuttle bone. 
Stir well and put up in tin boxes. 

Gold Polishing Powder. Mix together 4.3 parts of alumina, 17.4 of 
chalk, 4.3 of carbonate of lead, 1.7 of carbonate of magnesia, and 1.7 of 
rouge. 

Polishing Paste for Brass. Dissolve 15 parts of oxalic acid in 120 
parts of boiling water and add 500 parts of pumice powder, 7 of oil of 
turpentine, 60 of soft soap, and 65 of fat oil. 

The polishing agent is usually mixed with oil, alcohol or water to pre- 
vent scattering, and is then applied by the polishing tool in the shape of 
cloth and leather butfs, polishing files, etc. Either the work or the tool 
should revolve with great velocity in order to secure good results. Many 
articles are brought to a high degree of polish by the use of the burnisher, 
after subjecting them to the action of the ordinary polishing agents. See 
Burnisher^ also ISuff . 

Scratch Brushing. Articles in relief which do not admit of the use 
of the burnisher are brightened bv the aid of the scratch brush. The 



Cleat. 90 

shape of the brush varies according to the article to be operated upon. 
Hand scratch brushes are sometimes made of spun glass, with fibres of 
extreme fineness and elasticity, and are used for scouring only very deli- 
cate objects. They are also made of numerous wires of hardened 
brass and are prepared in similar form to the glass brushes, except when 
purchased the ends of the wires are not cut off. the operator being expec- 
ted to do so before using them. The object in leaving the wires con- 
nected being to prevent them becoming damaged. Circular scratch 
brushes, in which the wires are arranged radially, are used for scouring 
articles which will admit of their use. They are attached to the spindle 
of a polishing lathe, and the wires consequently all receive a uniform 
motion in the same direction. Scratch brushes are seldom, if ever, used 
drv, the tool and the work being constantly wet with a decoction of soap- 
root, marshmallow, cream of tartar, alum or licorice root. With small 
articles the scratch brush is held as you would a pencil, and is moved 
over the articles with a backward and forward motion. The brushes 
must be carefully looked after and the wires kept straight and in good 
order. If they become greasy they are cleansed in caustic potash, and if 
they become rough they are sometimes dipped into nitric acid. With 
circular brushes it is well to reverse them occasionally in order to change 
the direction of the wires. Dirty polishing leathers should be cleaned 
bv soaking them for an hour or two in a weak solution of soda in warm 
water, first rubbing the leather thoroughly with soap. Rinse thoroughly 
and wash in soap and water. The soap in the water will keep the leather 
soft and pliable. Dry it in a towel and rub it thoroughly and your leather 
will be much better than any new one you can buy. 

CLEAT. A narrow or thin piece of metal used to fasten two pieces 
of metal together by the aid of solder, screws or rivets. 

CLEMENT, WILLIAM. A London clockmaker, wlio in i6So. 
laid claim to the invention of the long or royal pendulum. 

CLEPSYDRA. A water clock. A machine used anciently for 
measuring time by means of the discharge of water through a' small 
aperture. The Egyptians divided the space between sunrise and sunset 
into twelve hours, known as day, and between sunset and sunrise into 
twelve others, known at night. The days and nights therefore varied 
according to the seasons, so that the artificial divisions varied in like pro- 
portions, rendering the task of inventing a mechanism capable of being 
retarded or accelerated quite a formidable one for the mechanic of that 
day- The clock illustrated in Fig. S6 was so constructed that its aperture 
was adjusted as the year advanced by the attachment of an index to the 
sun s place in an ecliptic circle. It consists of a reservoir, A, at the top 
of which will be seen a waste pipe, to carry off the superfluous water 



91 



Clepsydra. 



and thus keep the level the same at all times. From this reservoir pro- 
jects a pipe, B^ which connects with the rim of a drum, M^ N^ on the 
front of wliich is a circle with the signs of the ecliptic engraved upon its 
dial. Fitting inside this large drum is a smaller one, O F, having an 
index attached to it. This drum has a groove or slot, a h, cut through it, 
tapering in hreadth both ways to a point. This tapering groove, when 
the parts are in their places, comes just under the end of the pipe leading 
from the reservoir. This smaller drum turns upon the pipe F^ which is 
continued within and has a funnel attached for receiving the water as it 
drops through the groove in the drum. The index or hand is double, 
L for day and O for night, and it will be evident that as it is turned the 




Fig. 86. 



capacity of the orifice is altered and the water is regulated to pass more or 
less rapidly through the pipe. The ecliptic being properly divided, the 
hand was set to the proper sign in which the sun then was and was 
altered as it shifted around the ecliptic. The water, after passing through 
the regulator and the pipe C, dropped into the cylinder //, in which was 
a float /, connected by a chain passing over a pulley on an arbor F, and 
having a counter-poise weight /T attached to its other end. To the pul- 
ley was attached a hand which pointed to the hour on the circular dial. 
A water clock, made by Ctesibius, is illustrated in Fig. 87. The water 
dropped into a funnel A, and was conveyed to the reservoir by means of 
the pipe M. In this cylinder was located a float, to which was attached 
a light pillar, on top of which was a figure pointing to the hour upon 
a column opposite. Attached to the bottom of the water cylinder was a 
small pipe, bent in the form of a syphon, as shown at E F F. As the 



Clepsydra. 



92 



water rose in the cylinder it also rose in the small pipe until it reached 
the top, when it flowed over the bend, thus filling the siphon, and by a 
well known law it quickly emptied the cylinder, the float and figure 
falling as the water receded. In order to overcome the obstacle of 
hours of a varying length, the inventor very cleverly drew the divisions 
on the column out of horizontal, so as to 
vary in their distance on different sides of 
the column. As the water came from the 
syphon it fell into receptacles in a wheel, 
shown at K^ which, turning with the 
weight, as each compartment filled, caused 
the cylinder to revolve by the action of 





Fig. HI. Fig. 8s. 

the pinion on its axis, taking into the contrate wheel /, which by another 
pinion H, turned the wheel and shaft G and L. In this way a variable 
scale of divisions was presented to the index, the space being regulated by 
the number of teeth in the wheels. Authorities differ as to the date of the 
revival of the clepsydra, one authority placing the date at 1646, while 
another gives it as 1693. A clepsydra of the seventeenth century is 
illustrated in Fig. 88. It consisted of an oblong frame of wood, A B C D, 
to the upper part of which two cords A a, />' b, are fixed at their superior 
extremities and at their inferior are wound around the axis of the drum 
E. This drum was divided into several water-tight compartments, as 



93 



Clerkenwell. 



sho^Yn in Fig. 89. The cord was wound around the axis until the drum 
■was elevated to the top of the frame and it was then left to obey the force 
of gravity. A hole was pierced near the bottom of each compart- 
ment, allowing the water to slowly ooze from 
one compartment to the other, thus causing 
the drum to revolve with a certain degree of 
accuracy. The rate of motion was regulated 
by altering the size of the apertures. The 
hours were indicated in two ways; one by the 
axis pointing out the hours on the side of the 
frame as it revolved, and another by passing 
a cord, c r/, over a pulley attached to an arbor, 
having an index or hand to point out the 
hours on a dial, a weight, F. being fastened to 
the other end of the cord. 




CLERKENWELL. One of the great watch and clock centers of 
England. It is one of the parishes of London, and within its limits 
every branch of the watch trade is carried on. 

CLICHE. The forming of metal objects by means of forcing a die 
into heated metal. 

CLICK. A pawl or dog which falls into a ratchet wheel and pre- 
vents it from turning backward, and is usually held in position by means 
of a spring, known as the click spring. A ratchet wheel with click is 
fixed to the barrel arbor of watches and clocks to maintain the main- 
spring after being wound. 

Click Spring. The spring which holds the click in position on a 
ratchet wheel's tooth. 



To Mount a Click Spring. When the old click spring has been 
taken down from the bridge, find a new one, which, in length from click 
to foot, into which the holes are drilled for fastening, is suited to the 
shape and length of the bridge. With three claws fasten this latter in 
an uprighting tool, placing the centering center into the screw hole of 
the bridge, which serves for screwing on the click spring. When the 
bridge has in this manner been mounted well upon the plate of the 
uprighting tool, raise up the centering center and lay the new click spring 
exactly as it is to be located in its place upon the bridge, carefully pre- 
venting the claws from covering that part of the bridge to which the 
spring is fastened. The upper face of the spring must, by so much as 
will be lost afterwards in grinding and polishing, protrude beyond the 
surface of the barrel bridge. Then retain the spring in its place by 



Clocks. 94 

applying a finger, and lower the point of the uprighting tool upon the 
click spring, making a dot by applying a gentle pressure exactly at the 
true spot. This dot is enlarged by punching, and a hole is then drilled 
exactly to suit the size of the screw. The burr is next removed, and the 
spring finished suitable to shape and length. If the bridge contains a 
foot, pin hole, bush it by firmly driving into it a brass pin, file off its 
projecting part level with the bridge, and screw the spring in place. 
Then drill, as closely as possible, to the extreme end of the spring, a 
small hole for the pin, clear through into the bridge. Harden the spring, 
annealit, chamfer and polish the edges, grind and polish the surface; 
fit the foot pin. 

CLOCKS. It has been a matter of no small dispute as to who first 
invented clocks employing a weight for the motive power. Pacificus, 
Archdeacon of Verona, is said to have constructed a clock in 850 A. D., 
which marked, besides the hours, the days of the week, the phases of 
the moon, elc. Bailly, in his history of Modern Astronomy, argues 
verv forcibly in favor of Pacificus, saying that he was the inventor of 
an escapement, in which the inertia of a balance was employed to retard 
and regulate the movement of a train of wheels moved by a weight. 
Father Alexandre, the author of a treatise on clocks, decides against 
Pacificus as the inventor of the weight clock, and Berthoud is of the 
same opinion. Nelthropp, in his treastise on watch work, says that it is 
more than probable, almost certain, that to the Moors of Spain the world 
is indebted for the great advance in clock work, and that from Cordova, 
Granada and Barcelona went forth the ideas which gave birth to the 
weight as a motive power, instead of water. Nelthropp is of the opinion 
that the inventor of the weight clock was one Gerbert, who was born in 
920, A. D., in the village of Belliac in Auvergne. Certain it is that in 996 
he made a clock for Madgeburg, which writers agree in stating had a 
weight for the motive power. After various ups and downs he became 
Pope, under the name of Sylvester II., in the year 999. 

According to Stowe, a clock was erected near Westminister Hall, out 
of a fine of 800 marks imposed upon Ralph de Heugham, Chief Justice 
of the King's Bench, in 1288, A. D. In 1292 a clock was erected in Can- 
terbury Cathedral, by Henry, the Prior. In 131 7, a clock was erected in 
Exeter Cathedral. In 1326, Richard Wallingford, Abbot of St Albans, 
constructed for the abbey a clock, which, Leland says, showed the course 
of the sun, moon and planets, and the rise and fall of the tides. In 1344 
a clock was constructed for Padua by a workman named Antoine, after 
the designs of Jacques de Dondis. In 1348, a clock was constructed for 
Dover Castle, with wheels and frame of wrought iron; escapement, a 
crown wheel acting on pallets fixed to a verge, the upper end of which 
was suspended to a cock by a piece of cord, so as to hang perpendicular; 
lower end, a pivot working into a kind of stud attached to frame; 



J)o 



Clocks. 



balance, an iron bar, each end terminating in an elbow, to which a 
weight was attached in order to produce an equtlibriuin. 

The first Strasburg clock was begun in 1352, and completed two years 
after, by John Bishop, of Lichtenberg The second clock was begun in 
1547, by Dr. Michael Heer, Nicholas Bruckner and Christian Herlin, 
professor of the University of Strasburg, and one of the most distin- 
guished mathematicians of his time. Owing to the death of the Col- 
leagues of Herlin, the work was not completed until 1574. I^i 1570, 





Fig. 90* 



Fig. :uf. 



Conrad Dasypodius, a disciple of Herlin, reconstructed it on a larger 
scale. The mechanical work was performed by Isaac and Josiah 
Habrecht, clock-makers of Schaffhausen, Switzerland. This clock, which 
was restored in 1669, by Michael Isaac Habrecht, grandson of Dasypo- 
dius, one of the original makers, and a second time restored by James 
Straubharr, in 1732, ceased to act in 1789. The present Strasburg clock 
was commenced June 24, 1838, and started running on October 2, 1842. 
In 1370, Charles V., King of France, caused to be made at Paris, a large 



*Side view of Time Train. B, Barrel; C, D, E, Plates; F, Ratchet and Click; 
G, Great Wheel; P, O, Winding Pinion and Wheel ; H, Second Wheel ; g. Escape 
Pinion; 6, Pinion driving Hour Wheel; N. Hour Wheel, the arbor of which carries 
the hand. 

•\Front view of Time and Strikinq Train. K, Verg-e; I., Balance; m, Shifting- 
AVeightsfor adjustins: the Clock to time; N, Count Wheel or Locking Plate; T, Lever 
for letting off Striking Work. 



Clocks. 



96 



."'n.-^^mV-T 



turret clock, bv one Henry de Vick, (bometimes spelled De Wyck), a 
clockmaker of Wurtemburg. He took eight years to complete the 
work. John Jouvance cast the bell on which the hammer of the clock 
struck the hours. It was on this bell the signal was given for the mas- 
sacre of Saint Bartholomew, 1572. 

The escape wheel of this clock was a crown wheel which acted on pal- 
lets attached to a vertical rod or axis, moving on two pivots; the balance, 

a heavy bar of iron, was fixed to the upper 
part of this verge, and had weights placed 
at corresponding distances on each arm by 
means of a number of equidistant notches, 
in order to regulate its vibrations. The 
upper end of the verge was suspended by a 
small cord, to a cock fixed to the larger 
cock, in which the pivot hole was pierced, 
tor the purpose of keeping it perpendicular 
and decreasing the friction of the lower 
pivot. 

In 1 391, a clock was constructed for the 
Cathedral of Metz. In 1401, a clock was 
constructed for the Cathedral of Seville. 

In the National Horogical Museum, at 
Nuremburg, Germany, is a clock which 
was presented to the museum by Gustav 
Speckhart, the court watchmaker. Speck- 
hart estimates that it was made between 
the years 1400 and 1420, and is therefore 
the oldest clock in the city of Nuremburg. 
It was originally located upon the clock-tower of the St. Sebaldus 
Church, and indicated the hours to a watchman, who thereupon 
announced them to the inhabitants of the city by striking upon a bell in 
the tower. The hammer used weiglied 120 pounds, and was introduced 
at the same time as the great bell Benedicta, in the year 1392. This 
clock is constructed entirely of iron, and is 153^ inches high. The dial, 
which is also constructed of iron, is 11 inches in diameter. The clock 
when first discovered had a painted dial with twelve hours upon it, but 
Speckhart was aware that this was not the original dial because on the 
outer circumference of the dial, he found sixteen nails, one with a sharp 
pointed head, corresponding to the figure 12 and fifteen with round 
heads. On carefully removing this paint, he found another dial with 
twelve hours recorded, and on removing this he came upon the original 
dial which was painted with sixteen Roman figures of a gothic form. 
The original division of the day and night was into 16 hours, since the 

*Side vieio of Striking Train. F. Weight; A, B, Plates; C, Barrel: c, Pin-? for 
raisins^ the hainmer tail; L, Fly; /, Pinion for drivin<j Count Wheel. 




Fig. U2*. 



97 



Clocks. 



longest day, as well as the longest night, has sixteen hours. It is sup- 
posed that the nails were used by the watchman in determining the hour 
without the use of a light, and that he first sought the nail with the point, 
then felt downwards, counting the others, until he arived at the nail 
above which the hand rested. When the day was divided into twice 
twelve hours, about 1560-1580, the old hour wheel was removed and 



/~\. 




Fig. 93. 
replaced by a new one, and the dial was repainted to correspond. The 
clock has no striking work proper, but as shown in Fig. 93, is provided 
with a kind of alarm, which after each hour, rattles the hammer to and 
fro on a bell, to call the attention of the watchman. The motion work 
consists of a barrel wheel with ninety-six teeth; a vertical wheel with 
thirty-five teeth, and a five-leaf pinion. The barrel wheel has a four- 
leaf pinion, seizing into forty-eight teeth of the hour wheel. In the 
former division of sixteen hours the hour wheel had sixtv-four teeth. 



Clocks. 98 

The verge is suspended by a cord, and in lieu of a balance, is provided 
with a horizental toothed bar, on the ends of which hang two small 
weights, for regulating purposes. The winding part is peculiar, because, 
while the cord with the heavy weight descends, another cord with a 
small weight winds up in an opposite direction, and it is only necessary 
to draw down the small weight in order to wind up the heavier. 

A pin a is inserted in the barrel wheel, which makes one revolution 
every hour ; this pin unlocks the lever b and actuates the alarm ; but since 
it was thought necessary ^to prolong the alarm for about one-quarter of 
a minute, the following arrangement was introduced: While the lever b 
on the movable part c, is raised up by the pin a, it liberates the wedge d^ 
which, when the alarm is at rest, leans on the lever arm e, so that the 
alarm wheel, with one winding, sets the hammer into activity. Ordi- 
narily it would take some time for the pin a, with its movable part c, to 
pass the lever b, and the alarm would in consequence run down with the 
first ringing. To prevent this, the angle / is riveted to the circumference 
of the alarm wheel, opposite to the wedge d, which after a half revolu- 
ion of said wheel, still lifts up a part of the lever arm e, so that the part 
c falls downward by its own weight, and leaves the pin a free, so that the 
lever arm e again assumes its place upon the face of the alarm wheel, and 
the wedge d, in its further half revolution, places itself against it in order 
to place the alarm into repose, until the performance is again repeated. 

An astrological clock, bearing the date 1525, is in the museum of the 
Society of Antiquaries, London. It was made by one Jacob Zech, of 
Prague, and Nelthropp, after investigation, is of the opinion that it was 
once the property of Sigismund the First, King of Poland. The wheels 
of this clock are made of iron. It is fitted with a powerful expansive 
spring, coiled in a drum or barrel, and has a hand-made fusee for equal- 
izing the variable power. The balance consists of an iron bar carrying 
a screw at each of the ends, with tapped weights of lead. At present the 
barrel is connected with the fusee by a chain, but there is every reason 
to believe that in the original construction a catgut or cord was used. 
The escape.nent is of the verge and crown wheel type. 

In 1532, Henrj', the Eighth, presented to Anne Boleyn, on their mar- 
riage, a clock of beautiful construction which is now in Windsor Castle. 
There is a clock at Hampton Court Palace bearing the date 1540, and the 
initials N. O. 

There is a clock at Berne, Switzerland, constructed by Gaspard Brun- 
ner, a locksmith, but improved and repaired by Angely, a French clock- 
maker, in 1686. 

In 1758 James Ferguson invented what was known as the "Simple 
Clock." Fig. 94 illustrates the dial and wheel work of this clock. It 
showed the hours, minutes and seconds, by means of only three wheels 
and two pinions. The great wheel contained 120 teeth and turned 
around in twelve hours, and on its axis was the plate on which the 



99 



Clocks. 



twelve hours were engraved. This wheel turned a pinion of ten leaves 
and the minute hand was on the axis of this pinion. On this axis was 
also a wheel of 120 teeth which geared into a pinion of six leaves, and on 
the axis of this pinion was a wheel of 90 teeth, going around in three 
minutes and keeping a pendulum m motion that vibrated seconds, by 



rie.2. 




DML-PUTC. 



ar wuHUtftNC 



Fig. 94. 

pallets, as in a common clock, where the scape wheel has thirty teeth' 
and revolves in a minute. As this wheel only revolved in three minutes 
it was necessary, in order to show the seconds, that a thin plate be fastened 
to the axis and divided into 180 equal parts, and divided as shown in the 
illustration, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60; 10, 20, 30, etc. 

Annual and 400 Day Clocks. These clocks are made to run much 
longer than usual with one winding, by simply interposing a number of 
gears and pinions between the barrel and the usual train, and using a 
longer and stronger spring to overcome the increased friction in the 
train. These clocks are usually provided with torsion pendulums. They 
are made chieflly as curiosities. 

Astronomical Clock. A clock having twenty-four hours shown on 
the dial and a pendulum of such length as to show stellar time, which is 
three minutes, fifty-six seconds shorter than the mean solar day. Also 
called sidereal clock. 

2. A clock, or orrery, showing the comparative motion of the heavenly 
bodies, by means of concentric discs, rotating proportionately on a central 
arbor which also carries the ordinary clock hands. 



Clocks. 100 

Calendar Clock. A clock which shows the progress of the calendar. 
In a simple calendar the mechanism has to be adjusted at the end of all 
months having less than thirty-one days. In a perpetual calendar the 
correct indications during short months and leap years are performed 
without adjustment. 

Carriage Clock. A European term for a clock having a balance 
instead of a pendulum, so as to be readily portable. 

Chiming Clock. A clock which plays tunes, or runs through musical 
notes periodically. Church clocks strike these notes on a chime, or series 
of bells; mantel clocks operate a music box placed in the case. 

Clock Watch. A watch which strikes the hours in passing, as dis- 
tinguished from a repeater, which strikes the hours and minutes on 
pushing a lever. 

Electric Clock. A clock operated by a weight or spring and having 
a pendulum, which is controlled by electrical currents transmitted auto- 
matically by a master clock. 2. A clock in which the winding is per- 
formed by electricity, by means of a motor placed in the case. 

Equation Clock. A clock invented about the end of the seventeenth 
century, which contained a device for partially rotating the dial, so as to 
make the length of the day indicated by the clock, coinicide with that of 
the solar day. 

Equatorial Clock. A clock for driving an equatorial telescope. 

Locomotive Clock. A clock adapted to be carried in the cab of a 
locomotive, and so constructed as Lo withstand the jarring and heat var- 
iations of the temperature. They are usually made with detached lever 
escapement, jeweled, like a watch, and compensated for temperature. 

Master Clock. A clock which is carefully regulated and used to 
correct others, by electricity or otherwise. 2. The original clock model 
from which others are made. 

Pneumatic Clock. One of a series of clocks governed by pulsations 
of air, sent to them at regular intervals through tubes which are con- 
trolled and operated by a master clock. 

Repeating Clock. The mechanism by which a clock or watch may 
be made to strike the hours and minutes by pulling or pushing a cord or 
rod, so as to tell the time without looking at the dial, was invented in 



101 Clocks. 

m *«76, by a Wm. Derham. It immediately became popular, and the idea 
Wits taken up by many English, French and German horologists. It 
■was at first applied only to clocks, but was subsequently put into watches 
as well, and forms the origin of the repeating watches of the present 
day. 

Watchman's Clock. A clock having a paper dial, which is used to 
control the movements of a watchman by means of keys fastened to 
short chains at various portions of his beat. The various keys operate 
variously shaped punches which perforate the dial, and thus show the 
time of his presence at any particular station. 

Cleaning and Repairing Clocks. In taking down clocks, prior to 
cleaning, it is a good plan to mark where the teeth of the wheels engage 
with the pinion leaves, for if there should be any slight inaccuracy the 
teelh may not gear so well if altered ; and in striking trains the lifting 
pins and the run after warning will then be correct when the clock is 
again put together, that is assuming they were right beforehand. In 
many French clocks there is already such a mark, one leaf of the pinion 
being sloped off and a dot being inade on the wheel tooth that corres- 
ponds with it. All the parts may be placed in a bath of kerosene, which 
forms as good a detergent as any and as they are taken out, brushed 
with a m.oderately hard clock brush; clean the pivot holes by twirling a 
pointed peg in each one. Tarnished gilt plates, and polished ones, if not 
much stained, may be restored by immersing in a cyanide bath. Badly 
stained polished plates may be repolished with rotten-stone used on a 
willow polisher or soft brush. 

For the ordinary run of clocks the following course of examination 
may be followed with advantage: After taking the movement from its 
case, remove the hands, dial, minute cock, and bridge, to try the escape- 
ment with some power on, and note any faults there. Next remove the 
cock and pallets, and if it is a spring clock, put a peg between the escape 
wheel arms to prevent it from running down, and let down the spring. 
Here sometimes is a difficulty; if the spring has been set up too far, and 
the clock is fully wound, it may not be possible to move the barrel arbor 
sufficiently to get the click out of the rachet. In many old clocks there 
will be found a hole drilled at the bottom of, and between the great wheel 
teeth, directly over the tail of the click; so that you can put a key on the 
fusee square and the point of a fine joint pusher through the hole, release 
the click, and allow the fusee to turn gently back until it is down. Hav- 
ing let down the spring, try all depths and endshakes and all pivots for 
wide holes; if it is a striking clock, do the same with the striking train, 
paying particular attention to the pallet pinion front pivot to see if it is 
worn and the rack depth made unsafe thereby, also seeing that none of 
the rack teeth are bent or broken. Having noted the faults, if an/, take 



Clocks. 103 

the clock to pieces, look over all the pivots, and note those that require 
repolishing. Finally take out the barrel cover, and see to the condition 
of the springs; if a spring is exhausted or soft, several of the inner coils 
will be found lying closely round the arbor. 

Pallets. In most cases some repairs will be required to the pallets, as 
these nearly always show signs of wear first; if they are not much cut, 
the marks can be polished out, and for this purpose a small disc of emery 
about three inches in diameter, mounted truly on an arbor, and run at a 
ihigh speed in the lathe, will be of great assistance; finishing off with iron 
or steel polisher and sharp red stuff. If you have to close the pallets to 
make the escape correct, see that the pallet arms are not left hard, or 
you may break them. After making any alterations in the pallets, it 
maybe necessary to correct the depth; should it only require a slight 
alteration, it will be sufficient to knock out the steady pins in the cock 
and screw it on so that it can be shifted by the fingers until you have 
got the depth correct, then screw it tight and broach out the steady pin 
holes, and fit new pins. If much alteration in the depth is required, it 
may be necessary to put in a new back pallet hole ; this can be made 
from a piece of hollow bushing, broached out and turned true on an arbor. 
It is not safe to rely on the truth of this bushing, unless it is turned on 
an arbor first. The hole in the plate is now drawn in the direction 
required with a round file, and opened with a broach from the inside 
until the bushing enters about halfway. Of course, in finishing broach- 
ing the hole, you will roughen the extremities to form rivets. Drive the 
bushing in, and rivet it with a round-faced punch from the outside; 
reverel it, and resting the bushing on the punch, rivet the inside with 
the pene of the hammer; remove any excess of brass with the file, 
chamfer out the oil sink, and stone off any file marks ; finally open 
the hole for the pivot to the proper size. 

Making New Pinions. Freqently one meets with an escape pinion 
that has become so badly cut or worn as to be useless, and if a new one 
cannot be purchased it will be necessary to make it from pinion wire. 
In sectoring the pinion wire to the wheel, bear in mind that it will be- 
come slightly smaller in filing up. Considerable practice is required to 
make good-shaped pinions quickly and well. A piece of pinion wire of 
a slightly greater diameter than the pinion is to be when finished, is cut 
about one-eighth of an inch longer than required, and the position of the 
leaves or head marked by two notches with a file. The leaved portion 
of the wire that is not required, is filed down on a filing block, taking 
care not to remove any of the arbor in so doing; a center is then filed 
at each end true with the arbor, and then projected through a hole in a 
runner and turned. 

Get the pinion head quite true, by straightening the arbor if necessary, 
and turn the arbor and faces of the pinion square and smooth. The 



103 Clocks. 

pinion is now filed out true, using a hollow-edged bottoming file for 
the spaces, and a pinion-rounding file for the sides of the leaves. The 
file marks are taken out with fine emery and oil ; the polishers may be 
pieces of oak, about a quarter of an inch thick, five inches broad, and 
six inches long, used endwise of the grain. One end is planed to a V 
shape to go between the leaves, and the other cut into grooves by rub- 
bing it on the sharp edges of the pinion itself, which speedily cuts it 
into grooves to fit. The pinion is rested while polishing in a groove cut 
in a block of soft wood, which allows it to give to the hand, and keeps 
it flat. When the file marks are all out, the pinion is ready for harden- 
ing. Twist a piece of stout binding wire around it, and cover it with 
soap; heat it carefully in a clear fire, and quench it in a pail of water 
that has been stirred into a whirlpool by an assistant, taking care to dip 
it vertically. When dried, it is covered with tallow and held over a 
clear fire until the tallow catches fire; it is allowed to burn for a moment, 
and then blown out and left to cool. The leaves are polished out with 
■crocus and oil in the same way that they previously were with emery. 
Now, if the pinion is put in the centers and tried, it will probably be 
found to have warped a little in hardening. This is corrected in the fol- 
lowing manner. The rounding side of the arbor is laid on a soft iron 
«take, and the hollow side stretched by a series ot light blows with the 
pene of the hammer, given at regular intervals along the curve. Having 
got the leaves to run quite true by this means, turn both arbors true, and 
polish them with the double sticks — these are simply two pieces of thin 
boxwood, about three-eighths of an inch wide and three inches long, 
hinged together at one extremity and open at the other; between these 
the arbor is pinched with oil and fine emery, and they are traversed from 
end to end, to take out the graver marks. The brass for the collet, to 
which the wheel is rivited, is now drilled, broached and turned roughly 
to shape on an arbor. The position on the pinion arbor is marked with 
a fine nick, and the collet soldered on with soft solder and a spirit-lamp 
taking care not to draw the temper of the arbor when doing so. Wash 
it out in soda and water, and polish the arbor with crocus, turn the collet 
true and fit the wheel on. If the pinion face is to be polished, it is now 
done, the facing tool being a piece of iron about one sixteenth of an inch 
thick, with a slit in it to fit over the arbor with slight fredom, used with 
•oil-stone dust first, and then sharp red stuff. 

Sometimes cut pinions are used for the centers, and then the body of 
the arbor is sufficiently large to allow the front pivot to be made from 
the solid arbor, but if the center pinions are made from pinion wire in 
the manner just described, the leaves are beaten together on an anvil to 
form a solid mass for the front pivot. This piece should project suffici- 
ently far through the pivot hole to allow it to be squared to receive the 
friction spring which drives the motion work. In cases where this 
pivot is much cut, it may be turned down and have a steel tube soldered 



Clocks, 104 

on to form a new one ; as these pinions are very long and flexible, some 
difficulty will be experienced in turning this pivot unless a backrest is 
used to support the arbor, and prevent it springing from the graver. 

Worn Pinions. In common clocks, where both third and escape 
pinions are worn by the wheel teeth, if the pivots are still in good condi- 
tion, the third pinion leaves can be turned back from the outer end rather 
more than the thickness of the center wheel, the pivot shoulder also 
turned back the same distance, the pivot re-made, burnished and short- 
ened. Then the pivot hole in the front plate is opened with a broach to 
about twice its original size, and a bushing with a good large shoulder 
is turned true on an arbor and riveted into the plate. The thickness of 
the shoulder of this bushing will depend on the amount the arbor was 
shortened, and must be such as just to give correct end shake to the 
pinion. By shifting the third wheel and its pinion thus, a fresh portion 
of both the third and escape pinions is brought into action, and as good- 
results will be obtained as by putting in two new pinions. 

Escape Wheel. Often, in old clocks, the escape wheel is so much 
out of truth that anything like close escaping is out of the question, as 
so much drop has to be given to enable some teeth to escape, that nearly 
all the power is lost; in such a case a new wheel is a necessity, and if 
you want to get a good hard wheel you must make the blank yourself. 
Take a piece of hard sheet brass, about twice as thick as the wheel is to 
be when finished, and cut from it a square sufficiently large for your 
wheel; then with a hammer with a slightly rounded face, reduce it tO' 
nearly the thickness you require. In hammering go regularly over the 
surface, so that no two consecutive blows fall on the same spot; and 
when one side is done turn it over, and treat the other in the same way.. 
File one side flat, find the center and drill a hole nearly as large as 
required for the collet; cement it with shellac to a flat-faced chuck in 
the lathe, and center it true by the center hole, Mark with the graver 
the size of the weeel, and with a narrow cutter remove the corners; face 
the blank with the graver, and turn it to size, leaving it slightly larger 
than the old wheel ; knock it off the chuck and reverse it, bringing the 
turned face next the chuck, turn that face flat and to thickness, and it is 
ready for cutting. After it is cut, remove any burs with a fine file, and 
mark a circle to show the thickness of the room, and on that circle 
divide it into the number of arms it is to have ; mark also a smaller circle 
slightly larger than the collet on which it is to be rivited, draw lines 
through the divisions in the outer circle and the center of wheel to mark 
the center of the arms. Drill a hole between each of the arms to 
enable you to enter the file, which, to begin with, should be a coarse round 
one, then follow with the crossing file, holding the wheel between a 
piece of thick card in the vice; finish by draw-filing the arms and crosses 
•with a very smooth file, followed by a half-round scraper used as when 



105 Clock, 

draw-filing. This leaves the surface smooth and ready for the burnisher, 
of which tool two different shapes will be required, one oval, and the 
other half-round. These tools, when in use, require to be repeatedly 
cleaned on a piece of leather, and passed over the palm of the hand, to 
prevent tearing up the surface of the metal. The wheel teeth are now 
polished out with a short-haired brush and fine crocus and oil; then take 
out the file marks from both sides of the wheel with a good stone and 
oil, and it is ready for riveting on. Take a slight chamfer out of the 
front of the wheel-hole, and roughen the surface of it with a graver; 
turn the collet down to fit in tightly, and rivet it on with a half round 
punch, taking care to strike light blows and keep the wheel turning 
while riveting. It is then ready for stoning off and polishing with a flat 
wood polisher and fine crocus and oil. In crossing out a small delicate 
wheel, it is a good plan to fasten it with shellac to a flat plate of brass, 
having a hole in it rather larger than the inside of therrim of the wheel. 
In this way all danger of bending a tooth of the wheel accidentally is 
avoided, and the crossing can be finished without removing it from the 
plate. 

Striking Work. The parts most frequently found to require repair 
in the striking train of clocks, are the pivots of the upper pinions, espec- 
ially those of the fly, pin wheel, and pallet wheel. If a pivot is only 
slightly cut, it can be re-turned and repolished, and a new hole put in; 
but if to entirely remove the marks the pivot would have to be much 
reduced in diameter, a new pivot is the only resource. 

New Pivots. In putting in a new pivot, the arbor may be centered 
in the lathe. A short stiff drill should be used, ground to cut in one 
direction only, rather thin at the point, and for a short distance behind 
the cuttings quite parallel. The drill should be left quite hard, or if a 
soft arbor is to be drilled, it may be tempered to a light straw color, and 
the rest of the shank rather softer. If this is lubricated with cither tur- 
pentine or benzine, but little difficulty will be found in drilling the arbor; 
the hole should be rather deeper than the pivot is long, and in size rather 
larger than the pivot is to be. A piece of staff steel is now centered, 
hardened and blazed off, and turned down true to fit the hole, and very 
slightly tapered ; if too tapered, the arbor will ^plit in driving it in ; when 
it fits half-way in, draw-file it carefully, and cut it to length, filing the 
end off square. A few blows of a light hammer will fix it firmly in 
position, then the extreme end of the pivot can be turned to a center, 
through a hole in the lantern runner. The pivot can now be turned 
down to size, polished, burnished, and the end rounded up. Should the 
pallet wheel front pivot require repairing, a center may be cut with the 
graver in the end of the square, then a male center can be used, and the 
pivot turned and polished in the usual manner. 



•Clocks. 106 

Gathering' Pallet and Rack. In many old clocks, particularly in 
long case striking-clocks, the rack and gathering pallet are frequently 
found in a very bad condition ; the pallet perhaps fitting the square very 
badly, thus making its depths with the rack uncertain. In the absence 
of a proper forging, a pallet may be made from a square bar of steel, 
thick enough to give the requisite length of boss. Mark the length of the 
tail of the pallet, and file it down to almost the required thickness ; file also 
the opposite face of the bar smooth and fiat, Mark the position of the 
hole, and drill it at right angles to the face ; the diameter of the hole will be 
the same as the small end of the square on the pallet pinion, measuring 
across the fiats, of course. Start the corners of the square in the posi- 
tion required with a good square file; then take a piece of broken square 
file of rather a coarse cut, and of the same taper as the square on the 
pinion; oil it, and drive it in with a few light blews of the hammer, turn 
the pallet over and knock it out again, turning it a quarter round each 
time you withdraw it. In a few minutes you can thus form a good 
square straight hole, and fit it accurately to pinion-square. Put it on an 
arbor and turn the ends square and to length; see that the tail is at right 
angles to the hole, also file the boss to form and shape the lip; this is 
usually made straight and the back sloped off, consequently it scrapes the 
rack teeth with its extreme end only, and wears quickly. As the pallet 
is in reality a pinion with only one leaf, its durability is increased by 
curving the face similiar to a pinion leaf cut in half. The end of the 
tail of the pallet should be rounded and finished off smoothly at right 
angles to its face, its length such that it is well free of the pin in the rack 
when gathering the last tooth but one, and rests fairly on the pin when the 
rack is up. If the tail of the pallet were left quite straight, and the end 
filed off square, there would be a danger of the rack being held up 
by the pallet, particularly when the pin in the rack is planted lower down 
than it should be, its proper position being rather above the top of the 
the teeth. The tail of the pallet is therefore curved to just throw the 
rack ofT. 

If any of the rack teeth are damaged at the points, it may be neces- 
sary to slightly top all the teeth and file them up again ; only the backs 
or curved sides of the teeth, should be filled, finally taking the burr off 
with the oil-stone slip. To make the depth correct again, the rack arm 
is hammered a little, to stretch it; care must be taken to keep the teeth 
truly in circle, also to see that they are well free of the boss of the gath- 
ering pallet, not only when it is in position resting on the rack pin, 
but also when it has moved into the position that it would be in when 
the clock has warned. If the boss of the pallet is not perfectly concen- 
tric, it may be just foul of the rack teeth in this position, although free 
when tried with the pallet resting on the stop pin. 

Run. Clocks are occasionally met with in which the hammer begins 
to lift as the clock warns, with a lot of useless run after the hammer has 



107 Clockmakers' Company. 

fallen. This is just the reverse of what should be the case, as the more 
run before the hammer begins to lift, the less probability there will be of 
the clock failing to strike when the oil gets thick. 

Rack Tail. A frequent source of trouble in some old clocks is the 
spring tail to the rack; it is intended to allow the hands to set forward 
without allowing the clock to strike. If the spring is weak and the 
rack spring strong, it sometimes gives a little and allows the rack to 
fall lower than it should, consequently a wrong hour is struck; an excess 
■of end-shake to the hour wheel will also cause this fault, if the snail 
is mounted on the hour-wheel pipe. This is, of course, easily corrected 
by a thicker collet in front of the minute hand. 

Pendulum Suspension Spring. This in ordinary clocks gets but 
little attention. The best material is straight lengths of steel, to be 
obtained from the mainspring maker, of various thicknesses. The chops 
at the top of the spring are usually made either by folding a piece of 
brass over to form both sides, or by cutting a slit in a piece of brass of 
suitable thickness, and closing the slit down with the hammer upon the 
spring until it tits it. A much better plan is to make the chops of two 
pieces of brass, and rivet them together; the bottom edges should be 
slightly rounded off to prevent any chance of the spring breaking at 
that point, as it sometimes does if the edges are left sharp. Most sus- 
pension springs err in being too thick, but it is not always advisable to 
substitute a much thinner spring, especially should there be but little 
room for the pendulum to vibrate in, as the arc may be so much increased 
as to cause the pendulum to strike the sides of the case, rendering it 
necessary to substitute a lighter weight or a weaker mainspring. The 
slit in the top of the pendulum is also generally cut with a thin saw, and 
then closed in; but there is no certainty of keeping it straight this way, 
and it is better to file a true slot and fit a slip of brass to fill it up to the 
proper size, thus keeping the spring true with the rod. 

Mainsprings. In selecting a new mainspring it is often not safe to 
accept the thickness of the old one as a guide. Mainsprings now are 
made more elastic and of a better surface than formerly ; and with a pin 
pallet ascapement, having but little recoil, a stronger mainspring mav 
•cause the pins to bottom in the escape wheel, or, if there is but little 
room in the case the pendulum may strike the sides. This latter diffi, 
culty is also likely to arise with a half-dead escapement. 

When a spring of proper length is broken close to the eye it will be 
sufficient to soften the inner end, punch a fresh hole for the hook, and 
carefully bend round another eye. — Britten. 

CLOCKMAKERS' COMPANY. In 1631 the clockmakers residing 
within the liberties and suburbs of the city of London petitioned the 
crown for a charter incorporating all the clockmakers, both free and 



Club Tooth. 108 

foreign, who practiced clockmaking in the city of London, and ten miles 
compass, bj the name of the Master, Wardens, and Fellowship of the art 
or mystery of clockmaking of the City of London, constituting them 
one body corporate and politic in deed and in name, to have and continue 
forever. By this charter, power was granted to elect a master, three 
wardens and ten assistants; to make laws for the government of all per- 
sons using the art within the city of London ; and also to regulate the 
manner in which all persons using the art throughout England and 
Wales shall carry on the same, with power to fine and punish offenders 
against their laws. All apprentices were to be bound to some free brother 
of the company of clockmakers for the term of seven years. They were 
empowered to seize and break work if unlawfully made, or made of bad 
materials, or to cause the same to be amended and made perfect. Faulty 
and deceitful work could be seized in the King's name. Persons who- 
imported clocks, watches, sun-dials, or cases for the same, were compelled 
to bring them to the company's hall to be examined and marked, upon 
pain of forfeiture. They were empowered to search for such imported 
work, not Hall-marked, to seize the same and prosecute the offenders. 
In compliance with the Act of Parliament of 1632, the acts and ordi- 
nances made by the oflncers and fellows, were accepted, ratified and 
approved, on August 11, 1632. The following were named in the Royal' 
Charter to be the first officers: Master, David Ramsay; Wardens, 
Henry Archer, John Wellowe and Sampson Shelton ; Assistants, James 
Vantrollyer, John Smith, Francis Forman, John Harris, Richard Mor- 
gan, Samuel Lynaker, John Charlton, John Midnale, Simon Bartram 
and Edward East. 

The first meeting of the company was held October 12, 1632. Strange 
to relate, says Nelthropp, the company has never possessed a hall, but 
its meetings have been regularly held in some city tavern, even to the 
present time. 

CLUB TOOTH. The form of tooth shown in Fig. 95 and for lever 
escape wheels, having a part of the impulse angle 
on the tooth. See Lever Escapement. 

CLUTCH. A mechanism for connecting two 
shafts with each other, or with wheels, in such a 
manner that they may be readily disengaged. 

COCK. The horizontal bracket which holds 
the end of a stafT. A vertical or hang-down 
Ftg. 95. bracket is called a potance. See Bala?ice Bridge. 

COLE, JAMES FERGUSON. An able watchmaker and expert 
springer of London. He devoted considerable attention to the lever 
escapement, and devised several forms of it. He was born in 1799 and 
died in 1880. 




109 Collet. 

COLLET. A collar or band of metal. 2. A small collar fitted fric- 
tion tight to the balance staff, and which is slotted to receive the lower 
end of the hairspring. 3. The part of a ring in which a stone is set. 4. 
The under side of a brilliant cut stone. 

COLLET WRENCH. A tool for twisting a hairspring collet to 
position, which consists of a metal handle, hollow at the extremity for 
the reception of the pivot, and having a minute wedge-shaped projec- 
tion from its face, which enters the slit in the collet, allowing it to be 
turned readily. 

COLORING GOLD ARTICLES. See Cleansing, Pickling and 
Polishi77g. 

COMPASS. An instrument consisting of a magnetized needle 
turning freely on a point, used to determine horizontal directions in ref- 
erence to the cardinal points. 

COMPASSES. An instrument for measuring figures, describing 
circles, etc., consisting of two pointed limbs usually pivoted together at 
the top. 

COMPENSATION The correction of the effect of variations of 
temperature on the vibrations of the balance or pendulum. The first 
person, says Nelthrop, who seems to have observed that metals changed 
their length, by changes of temperature, was Godfroi Wendelinus, Canon 
of Conde. in Flanders, about the year 1648. John Ellicott, a watchmaker 
of London, invented a pyrometer, for testing the expansions and con- 
traction of metals, about 1740. About the year 1715, Graham endeavored 
to make a pendulum i-od that should counteract the effect of heat and 
cold, but did not succeed. In 1722 he made a clock with a mercurial 
pendulum, or rather, instead of a metal bob he used a vase filled with 
mercury which he attached to the end of the rod, which proved quite 
successful and was the first attempt at compensation. In 1726, Harrison 
completed his gridiron pendulum, and there is little doubt that he was the 
first to apply compensation to the balance of a watch, which he did in 
1749; but as there is no written evidence, the honor was claimed by F. 
Berthoud, who in 1766 made a watch with compensation balance, for 
Pinchbeck, a London watchmaker, for his majesty George III. Nel- 
throp thus describes it: The compensation piece was made of brass and 
steel pinned together; one end was fixed to the fore-plate, the other was 
made to act on a short arm projecting from a movable arbor; a longer 
arm, having the curb pins in it, moved nearly in the circle of the outer 
coil of the spiral spring. Mudge invented a compensation for heat and 
cold, which he applied to his time keepers. His system was more sim- 
ple than that invented by Berthoud, but acted in the same manner on 
the spiral spring. He applied it in 1774 to a watch. Abraham Breguet 



Compensation Balance. 



110 



invented and applied to his watches a V-shaped compensation curb, made 
to correspond in a great measure with the circumference of the balance. 
Nelthrop describes it as a curb being made of brass and steel, the brass 
being inside, and so arranged, by being screwed on to the extremity of 
the regulating index, that the balance-spring vibrated between one end 
of it, formed into a heel, and a fixed pin. The action was simple : in 
cold weather the space between the heel of the compensation curb and 
the pin, became enlarged, through the contraction of the compound 
laminae; consequently the balance-spring had more room to vibrate in. 
In warm weather the laminae expanded, thereby reducing the space, and 
contracting the expansion of the spring. The defect in this curb was 
the difficulty of adjustment, which caused it to be abandoned. 

Arnold had recourse to various experiments in order to obtain compen- 
sation, and finally adopted a system totally different from any of the pre- 
ceding ones. He placed the compensation in the balance alone, as will 
/0^-^====:^ ^ be seen by the diagram, judging that it 

would not be desirable to interfere with the 
pendulum spring, but better to allow it 

fts-ui ^" • f oV-^ u HLfa perfect freedom, as there would then be 

greater probability of its performance being 
good. Fig. 96 illustrates this balance. Let 
b, b represent the arms of the balance, 
^^ which is screwed upon a collet fixed to the 

-^^ff- ^^' end of the axis. At extremities of these 

arms are two shoulders, c, c, against which, by means of two screws, are 
fixed the expansion or compensation pieces, d^ d. These expansion 
pieces are each composed of two laminae, the outside being of brass, the 
inside of steel. At c, e the steel laminae are rounded off and tapped to 
receive the brass weights ^, ^;y,y" are small screws designed to adjust 
for small differences. At //, // are screws to regulate the mean time. 

The next important improvement in balances was made by Earnshaw 
in 1802. His balance was practically the same in construction as 
Arnold's, except that one balance rim only was used; he omitted the 
inner ring altogether. 

COMPENSATION BALANCE. A balance for a watch or chro- 
nometer which compensates the effect of variations of temperature on 
the vibrations of the balance. See Balance. 

Berthoud, in 1773, tabulated the effect of temperature on one of his 
marine watches. He reckoned that in passing from 32° to 90° (Fahr.) 
it lost per diem by — 

Expansion of the Balance 62 sees. 

The loss of Spring's Elastic Force 312 " 

Elongation of the Spring ,... _. 19 '* 

393. or 6"^- 33s. 




Ill Compensation Pendulum^ 

tJoubtless Berthoud's observation was correct as far as the total amount 
of the temperature error goes, but there appears to be no warrant for 
assuming that a part of the loss was due to elongation of the spring. Mr. 
Wright, of the London Horological Institute, first pointed out the fal- 
lacy in this reasoning of Berthoud's in 1882, although the statement ap- 
pears to have been accepted by all authorities for so many years. Mr. 
Wright called attention to the fact that the thickness and the width of 
spring would be increased in precisely the same proportion as the length, 
and as the strength of a spring varies as the cube of its thickness, the 
spring would be absolutely stronger for a rise of temperature if the 
relative dimensions only were considered. 

Sir G. B. Airy, by experiment in 1859, showed that a chronometer with 
a plain uncompensated brass balance lost on its rate 6. 11 sees, in 24 hours 
for each degree of increase in temperature. 

COMPENSATION PENDULUM. A pendulum in which the 
effect of changes of temperature on the length of the rod is so counter- 
acted that the distance of the center of oscillation from the center of sus- 
pension remains invariable. 

COMPENSATION CURB. A bar composed of two metals, usu- 
ally brass and steel, free to act at one end but retained at the other, the 
free end carrying the curb pins that regulate the acting length of a hair- 
spring. Not used in American watches and found only in old watches 
of European make. 

CONCAVE. The internal surface of a hollow rounded body. The 
reverse of convex. 

CONICAL PENDULUM. A pendulum whose bob moves in a 
circle. See Penduluin. 

CONICAL PIVOT. A pivot whose shoulders are of conical form 
______^_^__^ used only in pivots having end stones. Fig. 

J 97. See Balance Staff. 

. L CONOIDAL. Having the form of a 




Fig. 97. cone. 

CONTRATE WHEEL. A crown wheel. A wheel whose teeth^ 
are set at right angles to its plane and used ordinarily as a gear wheel for 
transmitting power from one shaft to another, standing at right angles to 
it. The escape wheel of the verge escapement. 

CONVERSION. A term in watch-making signifying that a change 
of escapement is made, as a movement originally having a duplex es- 
capement is changed to a lever escapement. 



Convex. 



112 



CONVEX. Rising or swelling into a rounded body. The reverse of 
concave. 



CONVEXO-CONCAVE. 

other. 



Convex on one side and concave on the 



CONVEXO-CONVEX. Convex on both sides. 

COPPER. A metal of a reddish color, malleable, ductile and ten- 
acious. It fuses at 2,000° Fah. and has a specific gravity varying from 
8.8 to 8.9. It has a breaking strain of 48,000 lbs. per square inch. In 
horology it is employed as a backing for enameled watch dials; in the 
construction of gridiron compensation pendulums; in the manufacture 
of compensation balances, etc. When mixed with tin it forms bell-metal 
and bronze and with zinc it forms brass and other alloys. See Alloys. 

CORUNDUM. The earth alumina, as found native in a crystalline 
state, including sapphire, which is the fine blue variety ; the oriental 
ruby or red sapphire; the oriental amethyst, or purple sapphire. It is the 
hardest known substance next to the diamond. The non-transparent 
variety, dark-colored and granular is known as emery. See Carborundum. 

CORUNDUM-WHEELS. Wheels faced with corundum, (emery) 
or made of a composition of corundum and cement. See Emery Wheels. 

COUNTER BALANCE. A mass of metal placed on the opposite 

side of a wheel to that to 
which a crank is attached to 
compensate for the weight 
of the latter. 

COUNTERMARK. A 

mark attached to gold and 
silver- ware of English make 
to attest its standard. See 
Hall Mark. 

COUNTERSHAFT. A 
short shafting mounted on 
two uprights, used exten- 
sively by American watch- 
makers. It is indispensable 
in using milling tools, wheel 
Fig. 98. cutters, and pivot polishers. 

Fig. 98 illustrate* one of several patterns of countershafts used by 
watchmakers. In some of the patterns the uprights extend through the 




113 



Countersink. 



top of the bencli and arc held firmly in place by means of nuts or thumb 
screws. The jiattern shown in the illustration is mounted on a solid 
metal base which can be fastened to the bench by means of screws. 
The advantages of using a countershaft are three fold: first, vou are 
able to regulate your speed perfectly; second, your belt is carried to the 
back of the bench where it is out of the way instead of coming down in 
front of the head ; and third, you obviate the necessitv of having holes 
in your bench on each side of tlie lathe, that small articles may drop 
through. 

COUNTERSINK. To enlarge the outer end of a hole for the 
reception of the head of a screw, bolt, etc. A tool used to turn out or 



V"enlarged "< 



ENLARGED 



ENLARGED 




Fig. 99. 

countersink. Fig. 99 illustrates Happersberger's patent, flat-bottomed 
countersinks, which are designed for making or deepening flat bottomed 
countersinks for screw heads of any kind. The screw-thread or hole 
will not be injured in using these tools. Fig. 100 illustrates a set of 

wheel countersinks made with cutters 
on one end and burnishers on the 
other. Countersinks are also made 
from steel in the Ibrm of drills and 
from emery in the form of a cone 
with metal handle for revolving. 
The emerv countersink will be found 
very useful for large holes and for trimming the edges of holes in 
enamel dials. 




Fig. 100. 



CRANK. The bent portion of an axis serving as a handle or connec- 
tion for communicating circular motion, as the crank on a steam engine. 
To twist or distort, as applied to metals. 

CREMAILLERE. The winding rack of a repeating watch. 



CRESCENT. The concave formed in the roller of the lever escape- 
ment to allow the passage of the safety pin. 



Crocus. 114 

CROCUS. Sesquioxide of iron used with oil for polishing brass 
and steel work. Crystals of sulphate of iron are subjected to a great heat, 
and then graded into polishing powders of various degrees of fineness. 
The more calcined part is of a bluish purple color, coarser and harder 
than the less calcined and is known as crocus The less calcined and 
finer portion is of a scarlet color and is known as rouge. 

CROWN-WHEEL. A wheel whose teeth are set at right angles to 
its plane. A contrate wheel. The escape wheel of the verge escape- 
ment is a crown wheel. 

CRUCIBLE. A melting pot capable of enduring great heat, with- 
out injury and used for melting metals. It is made of clay or clay com- 
pounded with black lead and other materials. 

CRUTCH. A wire fixed to the pallet staff arbor of a clock. The 
free end of it communicates impulse to the pendulum. II either passes 
into a longitudinal slit in the pendulum rod, or is formed into two 
fingers to embrace it. The pendulum rod is sometimes fitted with a 
fiat piece of brass to work in the crutch. Should this be very closely 
fitted and the pendulum .spring a little twisted, the clock will stop, a 
fault occasionally overlooked.. Where the crutch is in contact with the 
pendulum rod it should be very slightly oiled. 

CRYSTAL. A term applied to the glass of a watch case. Jrystals 
for watches were first used between the years 1615 and 1620. 

CUMMING, ALEXANDER. A celebrated clockmaker of Eng- 
land, who was born about 1732 and died at Pentonville in 1S14. He 
was the author of a book called "Elements of Clock and Watch Work," 
which he published in 1766. There stands in Buckingham Palace to- 
day a clock made by Gumming for George III., which registers the 
height of the barometer every day throughout the year. He was paid 
$10,000 for this clock, and received $1,000 per annum for looking after it. 

CURB PINS. The two brass pins that stand on either side of the 
hairspring near its stud attachment, and are attached to the regulator. 
They effect the time of the vibration of the balance according as they 
are shifted by means of the regulator to or from the point of attach- 
ment of the spring. Some authors advise timing in positions by the 
curb pins. This should never be attempted. The regulator should 
always stand as near the center of the index as possible. The curb pins 
should never be far from the stud and should be just wide enough apart 
to let the spring move between them and no more. Instead of disturb- 
ing the curb pins when timing in positions, add to or take from the 
weisrht of the balance. See Balance Screw Washers. 



^15 Cycloid. 

CUSIN, CHARLES. A watch manufacturer of Autun, Burgundy 
^ho inconsequence of the great persecutions which protestants had to 
endure, went and settled in Geneva in 1587, where, it is claimed, he was 
the^st to establish the watch trade. 

j[ CUSTER, JACOB D. The third maker of American watches. 
Jacob D. Custer, was born in Montgomery County, Pa, in 1809 In 
1831 he went to Norristown, Pa, and began the manufacture of ' Grand- 
tather" clocks. In 1840 he began the first of a series of twelve watches 

The writer has in his possession one of these watches, which is num 
bered 5 and bears the date February 4, 1843. It is a three-quarter plate 
lever escapement, and about 14 size It has a fuzee evidently of Eno-.! 
lish make, as is also the dial. The balance bridge is made of steel and Is 
countersunk into the plate so that it is flush with the surface of the upper 
plate. The rest of the movement was undoubtedly made by Custer in- 
cluding the case, which is of silver and of the old English type of boxed 
cases. The gilding is extremely thin. In 1842 Prof Bache, of the U S 
Coast Survey asked him to make an estimate on clocks to propel lights 
in the government light houses. His estimate was $200, and he sub- 
sequently furnished several hundred of them He had little or no 
educational advantages, and never learned a trade, and his sole knowl- 
edge of mechanics was acquired by associating with those who learned a 
mechanical trade and the knowledge gained by vears of experience and 
experiment. He built several large clocks, one of whibh may still be 
seen in the Norristown Court House. He died in 1879. \ 

CYCLOID. A curve generated by a point in the plane of a circle 
when the circle is rolled along a straight line, keeping always in the 
same plane. ^ 

The path through which a pendulum travels, to secure uniformity in 
the time of its vibration, through arcs different in extent, shouM be 
cycloidal. 

CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT. The cylinder escapement was 
mvented by George Graham about 1700, and was an improvement upon 
and a development of an idea conceived by Tompion, who had prior to 
this time, in 1695, invented an escapement somewhat similar. It is a 
trictional dead beat escapement as distinguished from a detached escape- 
ment. It was, at the time of its introduction, considered of but little 
value, as its principles were not thoroughly understood, it was difficult 
to manufacture, and above all the tendency to excessive wear of the 
acting surfaces. The Swiss solved the problem by making both the 
cylinder and escape wheel of steel and hardening them. 

The balance with this escapement is mounted on a hollow cylinder 
large enough in the bore to admit a tooth of the escape wheel. Nearly 



Cylinder Escapement. 



116 



one-half of the cylinder is cut away where the teeth enter, and impulse 
is given to the balr.nce by the teeth, which are wedge-shaped, rubbing 
against the edge of the cylinder as they enter and leave. The teeth of 




Fifj. 101*. 

the verge escapement lie in a vertical plane in the plan of a watch, and 
the term horizontal, therefore, fairly distinguished the cylinder escape- 
ment when it was introduced, but now that all the escapements in gen- 
eral use answer to the title, " cylinder escapement " appears to be the 
more suitable description. 

ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Fig. loi is a plan of the cylinder escapement, in which a point of a 
tooth of the escape wheel is pressed against the outside of the shell of 
the cylinder. As the cylinder, on which the balance is mounted, moves 
around in the direction of the arrow, the wedge-shaped tooth of the 
escape wheel pushes into the cylinder, thereby giving it impulse. The 
tooth cannot escape at the other side of the cylinder, for the shell of the 
cvlinder at this point is rather more than half a circle; but its point rests 
against the inner side of the shell until the balance completes its 



a. T-lscape Wheel. 

b. Cylinder. 



/. Tooth removed, showiiifr Stalk on 
which Teeth are supported. 



117 



Cylinder Escapement, 



vibration and returns, when the tooth which was inside the cylinder 
escapes, and the point of the succeeding tooth is caught on the outside 
of the shell. 

The teeth rise on stalks from the 
body of the escape wheel, and the 
cylinder is cut away just below the 
acting part of the exit side, leaving 
only one-fourth of a circle in order 
to allow as much vibration as possi- 
ble. This will be seen very plainly 
by examining Fig. 102, which is 
an elevation of the cylinder to an 
enlarged scale. 

PROPORTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

The escape wheel has fifteen teeth 

formed to give impulse to the cyl- 
inder during from 20° to 40° of its 

vibration each way. Lower angles 

are as a rule used with large rather 

than with small sized watches, but to 

secure the best result either extreme 

must be avoided. In an escapement 

with very slight inclines to the 

wheel teeth, the first part of the tooth 

does not work, as the tooth drops Fig. 102*. 

into the lip of the cylinder some distance up the plane. On the other 

hand, a very steep tooth is almost sure 
to set in action as the oil thickens. The 
diameter of the cylinder, its thickness, 
and the length of the wheel teeth are all 
co-related. The size of the cylinder 
with relation to the wheel also varies 
somewhat with the angle of impulse, a 
very high angle requiring a slightly 
larger cylinder than a low one. If a 
cylinder ©f average thickness is desired 
for an escapement with medium im- 
pulse, its external diameter may be made equal to the extreme diameter 
of the escape wheel x .115. 

Then to set out the escapement, if a lift of say 30° be decided on, a 
circle on which the points of the teeth will fall is drawn within one 

♦Elevation of Cylinder and One Tooth of Escape \Vheel therein. 
tPlan of Cylinder and One Tooth of Escape Wheel therein. 

a. Escape Wheel; b, Cylinder; c, Entering Lip of Cylinder; d, Exit Lip of Cylinder; 
«€, Passage for Escape Wheel; ;^, Collet for Halance. 





FUj. 103f. 




Cylinder Escapement. 118 

representing the extreme diameter of the escape ^^hee\ at a distance from 
it equal to 30° of the circumference of the cylinder. Midway between 
these two circles the cylinder is planted. (See Fig. 104). If the pomt 
of one tooth is shown resting on the cylinder, a space of half a degree 
should be allowed for freedom between the opposite side of the cylinder 
and the heel of the next tooth. From the heel of one tooth to the lieel 
of the next .= 24° of the circumference of the wheel (W) = 24), and 
from the point of one tooth to the point of the next also 

= 24°, so that the teeth may 
■ now be drawn. They are 
extended within the inner- 
most dotted circle to give 
them a little extra substance, 
and their tips are rounded a 
little, leaving the points of the 
impulse planes the most ad- 
vanced. The backs of the 
teeth diverge from a radial 
line from 12° to 30° to give 
the cylinder clearance ; a high- 
angled tooth requiring to be 
cut back more than a low one. 
A curve, whose radius is about 
two-thirds that of the wheel, 
is suitable for rounding the 
impulse planes of the teeth. 
The internal diameter of the 
cylinder should be such as to 
allow a little freedom for the 
tooth. The acting part of the 
shell of the cylinder should 
be a trifle less than seven- 
twelfths of a whole circle, 
with the entering and exit 
Flo- 104. lips rounded as shown in the 

enlarged plan, Fig. ,03, the forme," both -''y^' ''"f. '^^^^ ""f" Xe'^o 
inside onlv. This rounding of the lips of the cvlmder adds a htl le to 
he i npulse be.ond ,vhat would be given by the ang e on the .vhee 
teeth alone. tL diameter of the escape wheel is usually half that of 
the balance, rather under than over. 

EXAMIN.\TION OF THE ESCM-EMEXT. 

See that cvlinder and wheel are perfectly upright Remove the bal- 
ance spring,'and put the cylinder and cock in their places, fhen with a 
little power on, Ind a wedge of cork under the balance to check Us 



V 50' 




119 Cylinder Escapement. 

motion, try if all the escape wheel teeth have sufficient drop, both inside 
and out. If the drop is sufficient inside with none outside, the wheel is 
too small; if the reverse, the wheel is too large— that is, provided the 
cylinder is planted the correct depth. If some of the teeth only are 
without necessary freedom, make a hole in thin sheet brass of such a 
size that one of the teeth that has proper shake will just enter. Use 
this as a gauge to shorten the full teeth by. For this purpose use either 
steel and oil-stone dust, or a sapphire file, polish well with metal and red 
stuff, and finish with a burnisher. Be careful to operate on the noses of 
the teeth only, and round them both ways, so that a mere point is in con- 
tact with the cylinder. If the inside drop is right, and there is no out- 
side drop with any of the teeth, although it would indicate a wheel too 
small, it may be prudent to change the cylinder for one of the same in- 
side diameter, but thinner, rather than remove the wheel, for it often 
happens that a larger wheel would not clear the fourth pinion. 

If the teeth of the escape wheel are too high or too low in passing 
the opening of the cylinder, the wheel should be placed on a cylinder of 
soft brass or zinc small enough to go inside the teeth, with a hole through 
it, and with a slightly concaved faced. A hollow punch is placed over the 
middle of the wheel while it is resting on the concave face of the brass 
or zinc cylinder, and one or two light taps with a hammer will bend the 
wheel sufficiently. In fact, care must be taken not to overdo it. It 
rarely happens that the wheel is free neither of the top nor bottom plug, 
but should this be the case sufficient clearance may be obtained by deep- 
ening the opening with a steel polisher and oil-stone dust, or with a 
sapphire file. A cylinder with too high an opening is bad, for the oil is 
drawn away from the teeth by the escape wheel. 

If a cylinder pivot is bent, it may very readily be straightened bv 
placing a bushing of a proper size over it. 

When the balance spring is at rest, the balance should have to be 
moved an equal amount each way before a tooth escapes. By gently 
pressing the fourth wheel with a peg this may be tried. There is a dot 
on the balance and three dots on the plate to assist in estimating the 
lift. When the balance is at rest, the dot on the balance should be 
opposite to the center dot on the plate. The escapement will then be beat, 
that is, provided the dots are properly placed, which should be tested. 
Turn the balance from its point of rest until a tooth just drops, and note 
the position of tlie dot on the balance with reference to one of the outer 
dots on the plate. Turn the balance in the opposite direction until a tooth 
drops again, and if the dot on the balance is then in the same position 
with reference to the outer dot, the escapement will be in beat. The two 
outer dots should mark the extent of the lifting, and the dot on the bal- 
ance would then be coincident with them as the teeth dropped when 
tried in this way; but the dots may be a little too wide or too close, and 
it will, therefore, be sufficient if the dot on the balance bears the same 



Cylinder Escapement. 120 

relative position to them as just explained; but if it is found that the hft 
is unequal from the point of rest, the balance spring collet must be 
shifted in the direction of the least lift until the lift is equal. A new 
mark should then be made on the balance opposite to the central dot on 
the plate. 

When the balance is at rest, the banking pin in the balance should be 
opposite to the banking stud in the cock, so as to give equal vibration on 
both sides. This is important for the following reason: The banking 
pin allows nearly a turn of vibration, and the shell of the cylinder is but 
little over half a turn, so that as the outside of the shell gets around 
toward the center of the escape wheel, the point of a tooth may escape 
and jamb the cylinder unless the vibration is pretty equally divided. 
When the banking is properly adjusted, bring the balance around until 
banking pin is against the stud ; there should then be a perceptible shake 
between the cylinder and the plane of the escape wheel. Try this with 
the banking pin, first against one and then against the other side of the 
stud. If there is no shake the w^heel may be freed by taking a little off 
the edge of the passage of the cylinder where it fouls the wheel, by 
means of a sapphire file, or a larger banking pin may be substituted at the 
judgment of the operator. See that the banking pin and stud are per- 
fectly dry and clean before leaving them; a sticky banking often stops 
a watch. Cylinder watches and timepieces, after going for a few months, 
sometimes increase their vibration so much as to persistently bank. To 
meet this fault a weaker mainspring may be used, or a larger balance, or 
awheel wdth a smaller angle of impulse. By far the quickest and best 
way is to very slightly top the wheel by holding a piece of Arkansas 
«tone against the teeth afterward polishing with boxwood and red stuff. 
So little, taken off the wheel in this way as to be hardly imperceptible 
-will have great effect. 

Fitting New Cylinder and Plugs. In most cases of broken cylinders 
the upper half is left while the lower and most important part is missing. 
Take total length over all first, the same as in replacing staff, which can 
be done by the use of the Staff Length Gauge, (see Gauges), and then 
measure the length of the old cylinder from the under side of the hub to 
the end of the top pivot, and the difference between the two measure- 
ments will give the length of the lower part of cylinder and pivot, and 
this will serve as a guide in selecting an unfinished cylinder of proper 
length. The cylinders and also cylinder plugs can be purchased from 
marerial houses so cheaply that it will scarcely pay the watchmaker to 
make them. See Cylmder Plugs. Having selected a cylinder proceed 
to center it in the lathe in a finely centered chuck, leaving the lower end 
exposed. Turn the lower pivot first; then finish off the lower plug, 
and if necessary, turn oft" any surplus body of shell from the lower 
part of the cylinder as occasion demands. For obtaining the requisite 



121 Cylinder Plugs. 

measurements for the work, the little tool shown in Fig. 19 and the Staff 
or Cylinder Height Gauge sliown under Gauges will be found useful. 
Saunier advocates the use of experimental cylinders, and suggests that 
the workman will do well to make two or three different sizes during his 
leisure moments. They can be made from the cylinders kept in 
stock by material dealers. The cylinder and lower plug are better to be 
in one piece to increase the strength; the slot shallow and in different 
positions, (for the position of the banking slot is the most difficult to 
ascertain), and the cylinder only perforated where the top plu^is inserted. 
The top plug should be removed, the hole tapped, and a new'^plu- some- 
what longer, screwed in. The action of this tool is similar to t?ie Staff 
Height Gauge mentioned above. 

After the lower end is finished the wax is turned away and the cylin- 
der turned true and finally cut off at the proper length, preserving as 
fine a center as possible, after which the cylinder is reversed and finished. 

In pivoting, it is very seldom necessary to drill the cvlinder, as the 
upper and lower pivots are generally the extremity of plugs closely fit- 
ting in each end. In most cases tlie top pivot may be replaced by rest- 
ing the cylinder on a stake, the holftof which is of a sufficient diameter 
to allow of the entrance of the plug, and too small to allow the cylinder 
to pass through. A knee punch and a few light taps of a hammer are 
generally sufficient to drive the plug out far enough to admit of the 
turning of a new pivot. The lower plug must be driven out entirely 
(being too short to admit of turning a new pivot) and anew plug in- 
serted. The plugs must be made to fit tightly without taper, as wi'th a 
taper plug there is great danger of splitting the cylinder. Should the 
plug be very tight and difficulty is encountered in driving it out, a few 
light taps all around the cylinder will generally stretch it enough to re- 
move the plug easilv. 

CYLINDER HEIGHT TOOL. See Gmc^^e. 

CYLINDER PLUGS. Steel plugs fitted to the ends of a cylinder 
and on the ends of which the pivots are formed. Cylinder plugs can be 
obtained ready made from material dealers ; assorted sizes in neat boxes. 

DAMASKEEN. To decorate a metal by the inlaying of other 
metals, or by etching designs upon its surface. The embellishment of 
the surface of metals with rings or bars is snailing and is not damaskeen- 
ing, although improperly called so by watchmakers and watch factory 
employees particularly. See Snai/n^sr^ also Electro Plain, g^ Bronzincr ami 
Staitiing. 

DAY. The whole time or period of one revolution of the earth on its 
axis. 



Dead Beat Escapement. 122 

Solar Day. The period during which the sun is above the horizon 
or shines continuously on any given portion of the. earth's surface. 
Also called astronomical day, since the length of this day is continually 
varying, owing to the eccentricity of the earth's orbit and the obliquity of 
the ecliptic, a mean solar day is employed which is the average period of 
one revolution of the earth on its axis, relative to the sun considered as 
fixed. In astronomy and navigation the day is reckoned from noon to 
noon, but the civil day is reckoned from midnight to midnight. The 
mean solar day is uniformly equal to twenty-four hours. 

Sidereal Day. The interval between two successive transits of a 
given star. It is uniformly equal to 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.099 seconds, 
or 3 minutes, 55.901 seconds less than the mean solar day. 

DEAD BEAT ESCAPEMENT. An escapementin which, except 
during the actual impulsion, the escape wheel remains stationary and 
does not recoil. See Graham Escapement. 

DECANT. To pour otYa liquid from its sediment; as the decanting 
of diamond powder, prepared chalk, etc. Saunier advises the watch- 
maker to prepare all his smoothing and polishing materials by decanta- 
tion, as he will by this means free them from hard or large particles and 
obtain a uniform grain. At the present time the watchmaker can, how- 
ever, obtain diamond dust, prepared chalk, etc., ready for use, that are 
supposed to have been properly decanted. There are, however, many 
poor concoctions that have not gone through the proper treatment, and 
if the watchmaker is desirous of doing fine work and having reliable 
materials always at hand, it is well to decant these preparations, even 
though they be labeled "prepared." The operation is a very simple one 
and takes but little time. The material, being reduced to a powder, is 
placed in a vessel filled with water, oil, or other liquids, according lothe 
nature of the material to be operated upon, and after being thoroughly 
stirred it is allowed to partially settle. The liquid is then poured into 
another vessel, the heavy portion remaining in the bottom of the first 
vessel. This residue is only fit for use in the very coarsest work. The 
liquid is then stirred, allowed to settle partially again and is then poured 
into another vessel. The powder left should be labeled i. By succes- 
sive operations, each time increasing the interval of time allowed for 
settlement, finer deposits cm be obtained, wliich may be labeled 
respectively, 2, 3, 4, etc. In decanting dianiond power or oil-stone 
dust, oil should be used; for tripoli, rottenstone, or chalk, water; and 
for hartshorn and some other materials, alcohol is used. Diamond 
powder, as purchased from the material dealer, can rarely be improved 
upon hv manipulation unless the operator is expert. 



123 



Demagnetizer. 



DEMAGNETIZER. A machine or tool used to remove magnetism 
from parts of watches. There are several demagnetizers upon the 
market. In some of these machines the arc and incandescent electric 
light wires are attached to generate the magnetism, while in the Ide 
demagnetizer it is generated by the use of horseshoe magnets. 

The Greaves demagnetizer, shown in Fig. 105, is intended to be used 

either with a battery or 
electric light wire. 

Fig. 106 shows the Berlin 
Demagnetizer; it is con- 
structed on a principle 
similar to the Greaves, and 
like it, gives the best 
results when used with 
Fig. 103. electric light wires. Pro- 

cure an attachment plug •nd fasten to the end of the flexible cord accom- 
panying machine. Insert a lamp receptacle and turn on the current. 
Press down the key and turn the handle of commutator, about 150 
revolutions a minute. Insert the watch or part to be demagnetized into 
the opening of the magnet, and revolve very slowly, keeping it in a 
straight line with the center of the magnet until at a distance of two 





Fiq. im 

or three feet. Keep turning commutator at regular speed. Release key 
before ceasing to turn. It is not necessary to remove the movement 
from the case nor to let it remain in the magnet. While the current is 
on and the handle being turned with key down, insert the watch into 
the opening and proceed as above. 



Denison. 



124 



DENISON, E. B. A barrister of London, Avho was requested by 
the government to draw up, in conjunction with the Astronomer-Royal, 
specifications for the construction of a large clock for the Victoria Tower 
of the Houses of Parliament. VuUiamy and other leading clockmakers, 
who were invited to tender for tbe work, all demurred to a stipulation 
that the clock should be guaranteed to perform within a margin of a 
minute a week, which they declared to be too small. Mr. Denison 
would not yield, and the clock makers w^ere equally firm. Eventually it 
was decided to entrust the work to Mr. Dent, who was to make a clock 
from designs to be furnished by Mr. Denison. Mr. Denison's temerity 
was justified by his success. The Westminster clock, says Britten, turned 
out to be the finest timekeeper of any public clock in the world. The 
double three-legged gravity Escapement was invented for it, besides a 
new maintaining power and a novel arrangement for letting ofi: the hours 
to satisfy another of the conditions, which required the first blow of the 
hour to be given within a second of the true time. xMr. Denison was 
elected Precident of the British Horological Institute in iS68, and suc- 
ceeded his father as baronet, taking the title of Sir Edmund Beckett in 
1874. In 1S86 he was called to the House of Lords under the title 
of Baron Grimthorpe. 

DENNISON, AARON L. The father of the American watch fac- 
tories. The first person to apply the interchangeable system to the manu- 
facture of watches. This he 'did in 1850. He was the son of a shoe- 
maker of Freeport, Me., and was born in the year 1812. He was appren- 
ticed to James Carey, a watchmaker of Brunswick, Me., in 1830. In 
1839 he was engaged in a general watch and jew- 
elrv business in Boston and also carried a line of 
watchmakers' tools and materials. Invented the 
Dennison Standard Gauge in 1840. In the fall of 
1849 he began to build machinery for the manu- 
facture of watches on the interchangeable system, 
having associated himself with Messrs Howard, 
Davis and Curtis. In 1S50 he completed the 
model for the first watch which was 18 size, 
with two barrels, and was made to run eight days. 
The watch, however, was not a success, and its 
place was filled by a one-day. At this time 
the companv was known as the American Horologe Company. In 1S51 
the name was changed to the Warren Manufacturing Company, and the 
first one hundred watches bore that name. The first watches were placed 
on the market in 1853. The next six hundred watches bore the name 
Samuel Curtis and ihe name of the company was then changed to the 
Boston Watch Company. In 1854 the faciory was removed from 
Boston to Waltham, tlie company then making about five watches per 




Aaron L. Dennisoti. 



125 



Depth. 



dav, and emploving ninety hands. After the removal the movements 
were engraved Dennison, Howard and Davis. In 1857 the company 
assigned, and the property was purchased by Mr. Royal E. Robbins for 
$56,000. Mr. Dennison was then employed as superintendent and 
filled that position until 1862. In 1864, he with others, organized the 
Tremont Watch Company. He retired from this company in 1866, the 
name of the cotnpany having in the meantiine been changed to the 
Melrose Watch Company, and the factory removed from Boston to Mel- 
rose, Mass. Prior to the removal, the barrel, plates and minor parts were 
made in the Boston factory, while the trains, escapements and balances 
were made in Zurich, Switzerland, Mr. Dennison having charge of the 
latter factory. In 186S this company failed and Mr. Dennison was 
deputized to sell the factory, which he did, to the English Watch Com- 
pany, of Coventrv, Eng. Mr. Dennison then went to Birmingham, Eng., 
and embarked in the manufacture of watch cases. In this he was quite 
successful and he is still carrying on a very proiitable business there, the 
firm being known as Dennison, Wigley & Co. 

DENT, E. J. Born in 1790, and died in 1S53. Builder of the great 
Westminister Clock, London. 

DEPTH. The contact point between a wheel and pinion. 



DEPTHING TOOL. A mechanical device for transferring the 
deptliing of a wheel and pinion to a plate. Britten advises that before 
using a new depthing tool, the centers be turned end for end, also trans- 
posed, and ascertaining after each change if there is any deviation in a 
circle described by the points, in order to test the truth of the tool. The 
tool should be held in the left hand, with the adjusting screw pointed to 
the right. Place the pinion in 



the centers on the left, and the 
wheel on the right, first opening 
the tool sufficiently for the teeth 
of the wheel to clear the teeth of 
the pinion. The teeth of the 
wheel and pinion are then 
brought into contact by means of 
the regulating screw, shown at ^^^' ^^^' 

the bottom in Fig. loS. When the pinion and wheel are in right contact 
the tool may be secured with the screws furnished for that purpose. 
Then hold the tool so that you may observe the contact of wheel and 
pinion. After vou are satisfied that the depthing is correct, and that the 
teeth do not butt, the depth may be marked off by loosening the binding 
screws, taking the wheel and pinion out of the tool, and while one cen- 
ter is kept tight and inserted in the hole from which the depth is to be 




Detached Escapement. 126 

taken, the loose center is brought down until it touches the plate. If the 
tool is found to be perfectly upright, and all is satisfactory, tighten the 
loose center and mark the plate where the wheel or pinion is to be 
planted. The mark can then be made permanent by the use of a center 
punch or graver. 

DERHAM, WILLIAM. An eminent English divine, and one of 
the early writers on practical horology. He was born at Stourton, near 
Worcester, in 1657, and died in 1735. He was the author of "The Arti- 
ficial Clockmaker," a treatise on watch and clock work, showing the art 
of calculating numbers for all sorts of movements; the way to alter 
clock work, tc make chimes and set them to musical notes, and to calcu- 
late and correct the motions of pendulums. It was published about 1700. 
He was also the author of a work, entitled, " Philosophical Experiments 
and Observations of Dr. Robert Hooke, F. R. S." and another, called 
"The Antiquity of Clock-work." 

DETACHED ESCAPEMENT. The escapement of a time piece 
in which the balance, or pendulum, is detached from the train, during a 
portion of its vibration. 

DETENT. That which locks or unlocks a movement; the piece of 
steel that carries the stones that lock and unlock an escape wheel. 

DE VICK, HENRY. A celebrated German watchmaker of the four- 
teenth century and the builder of the famous clock belonging to Charles 
v., of France. Also claimed, by some writers, to be the inventor of the 
Verge escapement. See Clocks. 

DIAL. The graduated face of a time piece. Dials were first enameled 
by Paul Viet, of Blois, in 1635. 

The greater^majority of American dials are what are known as enamel 
dials, which consist of a copper plate for a base and an enameled face. 
The process of making these dials, as carried on in our factories, is as 
follows: The copper is shaped and holes punched in one operation. The 
feet are then brazed on, after which the enamel is applied to both the 
back and face, after which it is fired. After smoothing they are again 
fired, and, if perfect, they are sent to the painter. P^or many years after 
most of the other work in our factories was done by machinery ; the 
painting of dials was hand work. The Waltham Company, after experi- 
menting for a number of years, finally brought to perfection a process, 
bv means of which the dials are lettered, and the numerals, minute and 
second marks are printed by photography. Various processes are used in 
other factories, among them being the transfer process, which is effected 



127 Dial. 

by rubbing the enamel paint into a steel plate into which the lettering of 
the dial is countersunk, taking an impression from this plate upon a 
rubber platen and then transferring this impression to the dial. After 
painting, the dials are again fired. 

Dials of gold, silver and other metals are extensively used, particularly 
in the Spani»h-American countries. 

To Drill an Enamel Dial. Select a piece of soft copper wire of the 
diameter you wibh the hole, file off the end perfectly flat and hammer 
into the copper a small quantity of fine diamond powder. This form 
of drill will be found to perforate the enamel of a dial quite rapidly. 
Broaches made in the same manner give excellent results. These tools 
can be used either by revolving in the fingers or in the lathe. Emery 
countersinks will be found very useful for trimming the edges of holes 
in enamel dials. 

To Remove a Name From Dial. Apply a little fine diamantine to 
the end of your forefinger, and gently rub the name until it disappears. 
The finish can be restored by polishing the place carefully with a small 
quantity of diamantine mixed with oil, and applied by means of a small 
piece of cork. An agate burnisher is also used for the same purpose. 

To Remove Stains From Enamel Dials. Enamel dials sometimes 
have black or cloudy stains upon their faces, caused usually by the tin 
boxes in which they are shipped. These can be removed with a piece of 
soft tissue paper previously dampened with nitric acid. Wipe the stained 
places, carefully avoiding the painted portions as much as possible, for 
in some very cheap dials the painting is not well fired, and mav be 
injured by the acid. Wash the dial thoroughly in clean water and dry 
in sawdust. 

To Reduce the Diameter of a Dial. Rest the dial in an inclined 

position and file the edge with a half smooth file, dipping the file in tur- 
pentine occasionally, and finish with a fine emery stick. 

To Repair a Chipped Dial. Gently heat the surface of the dial and 
fill the hole with a compound of white lead and white resin, heated over 
the flame of a spirit lamp. It is better to heat the blade of a knife 
rather than the wax, and run no risk of discoloring the wax. Cut off a 
small piece of the wax and press firmly into the hole, allowing it to pro- 
ject a little above the dial. When cold, scrape down even with the dial, 
and finish, by holding it close to the flame, when the patch will gloss 
over nicely. Be careful and do not get it too close to the flame, or you 
may turn the enamel yellow. A mixture of white lead and white wax 
applied and polished by friction is also used, but it is not as handy and is 
not as capable of a high polish. 



Dialing. 128 

To Clean Metal Dials. Silver and gold dials can be restored by 
gently heating the back over a spirit lamp and dipping the dial in diluted 
nitric acid. If the figures are painted however, thev will be removed, 
and it will be necessary to repaint them, but if they are enameled on, the 
enamel will not be injured. If the figures are painted the dial may be 
cleaned by brushing with powdered cream of tarter either dry or in the 
form of a paste mixed with water. Avoid all the painted portions and 
work the paste in between the painted portions with a pointed peg wood. 
Wash with wann water and dry by carefully patting with a soft linen rag. 

"To Grind Enamel from the Back of Dial. It is sometimes necessary 
to remove a portion of the enamel from the back of a dial to allow room 
for the motion work, etc. The most convenient method is to grind the 
back with emery, preferablv in the shape of a wheel. Water should be 
applied to the work from time to time to prevent heating. 

Luminous or Phosphorescent Dial. A dial covered with varnish or 
a solution of white wax in turpentine, over which is dusted powdered 
sulphide of barium. Such a dial is luminous in the dark so that it can be 
read without a light. It loses its phosphorescence after a time, but this 
may be restored by exposing it to sunlight or to the flame of magnesium 
wire. 

DIALING. The art of constructing dials. The science which ex- 
plains the principles of measuring time by the sun dial. 

DIAL WORK. The motion work of a watch between the dial and 
the movement plate. 

DIAMANTINE. This polishing agent is used extensively for pol- 
ishing steel, and is a preparation of crystallized boron. It is not applica- 
ble to brass or copper work. Rubitine and Sapphirine are similar chem- 
ical preparations; they act quicker, but do not yield as good results. 

DIAMOND DRILLS. Pieces oi copper wire, in the ends of which 
are embedded fragments of diamond in the shape of triangular prisms 
and held in place with shellac. They are used for drilling jewels, etc. 
They may be obtained from material dealers. 

DIAMOND GRAVERS. These are very similar to diamond drills 
and are mounted in the same manner, but usually consist of larger, though 
shorter and stronger diamond fragments, and are used for shaping 
jewels, etc. They may also b« obtained from materid'l dealers. 



129 Diamond Laps or Mills. 

DIAMOND LAPS OR MILLS. These are of two kinds, one for 
grinding and the other for polishing. The grinding mills are copper discs, 
from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, into the surface of which 
diamond powder of various grades has been hammered or rolled. The 
polishing mills are made of box- wood, vegetable ivory, etc., and the pow- 
der is applied to their surfaces in the shape of a paste mixed with olive 
■oil. These mills are useful for cutting or polishing ruby-pallets, and 
other hard stones, for flattening stones to be used as jewels and for man- 
ipulating hard steel. 

DIAMOND FILES. Strips of copper into the face of which diamond 
powder of various degrees of coarseness has been hammered or rolled. 
Used for working ruby-pallets and other hard stones and hard steel. 

DIAMOND POWDER. A cutting and polishing agent prepared 
from the crushed chips from the diamond cutter's table, black, brown, and 
■other inferior stones, known as bort, and small diamonds. After pulveriz- 
ing thoroughly, the powder is decanted in olive oil to various degrees of 
fineness. To be had of material dealers generally. Used for charging 
the face of mills or laps for grinding and polishing hard stones, etc. It 
is also used for drilling by being applied to the end of a small taper piece 
of steel, flattened on the end for the reception of the powder, which is 
njoistened with olive oil. 

DIPLEIDOSCOPE. An instrument invented by J. M. Bloxam, in 

1843, used for determining the time of apparent noon. It consists of two 
mirrors and a plane glass disposed in the form of a prism, so that, by the 
reflection of the sun's rays from their surfaces, two images are presented 
to the eye, moving in opposite directions, and coinciding the instant the 
sun's center is on the meridian. 

DIVIDING PLATE. See Index. 

DOG. A clutch. An adjustable stop to change the motion of a 
machine tool. 

DOG SCREWS. The screws with half heads by which a movement 
is held in its case. 

DOUBLE ROLLER ESCAPEMENT. A form of the lever 
escapement in which a separate roller is employed for the guard action. 

DOUBLE SUNK DIAL. A dial having two sinks, one for the 
hour and another for the seconds hand. 



Douzieme. 



130 



DOUZIEME. A unit of measurement indicating, ^^ of a line or y^^ 
of an inch. See Gauge. 

DRAW. The angle of the locking faces of the pallets, as in the lever 
escapement. 

DRAW PLATE. A plate of very hard steel for drawing wire of 
various shapes and diameters. They are made for drawing round, half- 
round and square wire. The plates are sometimes formed of jewels tor 
working steel wire, etc. These plates are very handy for readily reducing 
wire to any desired diameter, and may also be employed for reducing 
the diameter of bushings. 

DRIFTING TOOL. A tool for punching holes in mainsprings, etc. 
It consists of a frame to be held in the vise, through which a screw 
passes, and to the end of which a handle is attached. It is used but little 
in this countr3% as the mainspring punch has superceded it, being simpler 
and quicker to operate. 




/lA*-, 



'"^V 



DRILLS AND DRILLING. Drilling may be effected in two ways, 
by rotating the drill and holding the work stationary, or vice versa. The 
most satisfactory results, however, are obtained by revolving the work 
and gradually bringing the drill into contact with it. Although it is not 
always possible to do this, owing to the shape of the article to be drilled. 
A drill of the shape shown in Fig. 109 is preferable for drilling hard 

steel, while the shape shown in Fig. 
p^ J W^ no is best suited for drilling soft 
^ r mm steel, brass, etc. Oil or glycerine 

diluted with alcohol is the best lubri- 
cant for the softer metals, but when 
drilling hard steel turpentine should 
be used. Drills of the form shown 
in Fig. Ill, are used for drilling 
flat bottomed holes, for countersinking screw heads, etc. See also 
Countersinks^, The twist drill shown in Fig. 1 12 is desirable when drill- 
ing deeply, as this form of drill heats slowly and the particles are car- 
ried to the surface of the work. Pivot drills, like those shown in Fig. 
113, can be purchased from material dealers, mounted on cards and 
ready for use, at such [small cost that it will scarcely pay the watch- 
maker to make them. 

Drills of a form indicated by Fig. 114 are recommended highly by 
Saunier and are known as semi-cylindrical drills. They are made from 
cylindrical steel rods, rounded at their ends and filed down to a trifle 
less than half their thickness. The length of the point should be greater 



Fig. 10;j. Fig. no. Fig. 111. Fig. 112. 



131 



Drill Rest. 



11 



or less according to the nature or the metal to be operated upon, but 
under no circumstances must the point itself be sharp. This form of 
drill should be sharpened on the round side 
and not on the flat surface. It possesses> 
says Saunier, the advantages that when 
placed in a drill-chuck it can be turned 

f^ exactly round, of the required diameter 
ij and finish; so that whenever replaced in 

Fig. 113. the chuck, one can be certain beforehand 
that the hole drilled will be of a definite diameter. With such a drill 
the hole is smoothed immediately after it is made by one or the other 
cutting edges. 




Fig. 114. 



DRILL REST. In using the lathe for drilling, a great saving in 
both time and drills can be effected by using a drill rest similar to that 
shown in Fig. 115. It is well to have a half dozen different sizes, start- 
ing at i^ inch and increasing by 1^ inch, for various classes of work. 
These rests are not kept by material dealers, but can be made by the 
watchmaker. Saw from a piece of rolled sheet brass, say 1-16 inch 
thick, the circles required, leaving 
metal enough to finish nicely 
Place a steel taper plug in the 
taper chuck of your lathe and 
turn down a recess, leaving a 
shoulder on the taper. Drill a 
hole through the brass plate to fit 
the steel taper tightly. Place the 
end of the taper on a lead block ^^9- 115. 

and proceed to rivet the brass plate on the taper, making sure that 
it is true. Replace the taper in the lathe-chuck and proceed to turn the 
face and edge of the brass plate perfectly true and to the proper size. 
Those who have tried to drill a straight hole through an object by hold- 
it in the fingers know just how difficult it is to do, but by placing one of 
these drill rests in the spindle of the tail stock, placing the article to be 
drilled against it and bringing it up against the drill, you can drill the 
hole perfectly upright and avoid all danger of breaking the drill. 




DRILL STOCK. A tool used for nolding drills, the more modern 
variety having a small chuck on one end for centering and holding the 
drill. 



DRILLING LATHE. A lathe, used for centering and drilling 
staffs and pinions, The plate has various sizes of conical holes for sup- 
porting the arbor, and can be turned upon its center. 



Drop. 133 

DROP. The distance which the escape wheel travels before touch- 
ing on the pallet. 

DRUM. The barrel of a turret clock on which the driving cord is 
wound. There is a variety of escapement, known as the Drum Escape- 
ment, which is met with but little in this country. Britten says this 
variety of escapement is a continual source of trouble to English repair- 
ers. It receives impulse at every other vibration only, and the idea of 
the escapement appears to be, that by providing a long frictional rest on 
one of the pallets, the extra pressure of the escape wheel tooth, when the 
mainspring is fully wound, will be sufficient to prevent any considerable 
increase in the arc of vibration of the pendulum. Clocks with this 
escapement, however, often stop from the diminished power when the 
spring is nearly run down, again, when it is fully wound, because the 
small and light pendulum has not the energy to unlock the pallet. 

DUPLEX ESCAPEMENT. An escapement invented by Pierre 
Le Roy about 1750. As first constructed, this escapement had two 
escape wheels (from whence its name is derived), one used for giving 
impulse, and the other to lock or check the wheel when the impulse 
tooth escaped from the pallet. This form was afterwards simplified by 
changing to that shown in Fig. 1 16. Britten says of this escapement, 
that like the Chronometer, it is a single beat escapement, that is, it 
receives impulse at every other vibration only. The escapement has two 
sets of teeth. Those farthest from the center lock the wheel by press, 
ing on a hollow ruby cylinder, or roller, fitted around a reduced part of the 
balance staff, and planted so that it intercepts the path of the teeth. 
There is a notch in the ruby roller, and a tooth passes every time the 
balance, in its excursion in the opposite direction to that in which the 
wheel moves, brings this notch past the point of the tooth resting on the 
roller. When the tooth leaves the notch, the impulse finger, fixed to the 
balance staff, receives a blow from one of the impulse teeth of the wheel. 
The impulse teeth are not in the same plane as the body of the wheel 
but stand up from it so as to meet the impulse finger. There is no 
action in the return vibration. In the figure the detaining roller, travel- 
ing in the direction of the arrow, is just allowing a locking tooth of the 
wheel to escape from the notch, and the pallet is sufficiently in front of 
the tooth from which it will receive impulse to insure a safe intersec- 
tion. 

The balance is never detached, but the roller on which the wheel 
teeth rest is very small and highly polished, so that there is but very 
little friction from this cause, and the alteration in its amount, is, there- 
fore, not of such consequence as might be imagined. A very usual pro- 
portion is for the diameter of the roller to be one-fifteenth of the diameter, 
of the largest part of the escape wheel, which it intersects about 30° 



133 



Duplex Escapement* 



measured from the center of the roller. The impulse teeth should have 
considerable drop on the pallet. Ten degrees is not an unusual amount. 
The scape wheel is made as light as possible, of hard hammered brass of 
very fine quality. The points of the impulse teeth are usually two- 
thirds the distance of the points of the locking teeth from the center of 
the wheel. The impulse pallet is sometimes jeweled. 

The staff requires to be planted with great exactness, and one of the 
most frequent causes of derangement of the Duplex Escapement is the 




Fig. 116.* 

wearing of the balance pivots. In such cases, the pivots having been 
re- polished, new holes, or at all events a new bottom hole, should be put 
in. See also that the point of each locking tooth is smooth and nicely 
rounded, and that every impulse tooth falls safely on the pallet; if some 
are shallow, twist the impulse pallet round so as to give more drop. Or 
if the roller depth is also shallow, carefully make the teeth of equal 
length by topping, and then, supposing it to be a full-plate watch, very 



a. Escape Wheel. 

b. Impulse Pallet. 
e. Locking Teeth. 



d. Impulse Teeth. 

e. Ruby Roller. 



Duplex Hook. 134 

slightly tap the cock and the potance towards the wheel until the escape- 
ment is made safe. In a three-quarter plate the recess for the jewel set- 
ting may be scraped away on one side and rubbed over on the other. 
The extra amount of intersection of the impulse pallet in the path of 
the wheel teeth thus made can be easily corrected by polishing off the 
surplus amount, if any. 

It is of the utmost consequence in this escapement that all the jewel 
holes should fit accurately, and that the balance staff should have very 
litl'.e end shake, otherwise the pivots will be found to wear away very 
quickly. 

A loose roller is occasionally the cause of stoppage. The staff and 
roller should be carefully cleaned from oil, which would prevent the shel- 
lac from sticking, and if the staff" is polished where the roller fits, it may be 
grayed for the same reason. Then warm the roller and fix with shellac. 

It sometimes happens that the impulse pallet, in running past, just 
catches on the impulse tooth, and when the balance leans toward the 
escape wheel, the continual recurrence oi this, causes the vibration to 
fall off, and gradually stops the watch. If the locking teeth are already 
the right depth, the fault should be corrected by polishing a very little 
off the corner of the pallet, with abelUmetal polisher, if the pallet is of 
steel, or with an ivory polisher and the finest diamond powder if it is 
jeweled. But the greatest care must be taken not to overdo it. 

A small drop of oil should be applied to the notch and nowhere else 
except to the pivots. 

When the escapement is in beat, the notch in the roller is between the 
locking tooth resting on it and the line of centers, or a little nearer the 
latter; out of beat is a cause of stoppage. 

The idea of this escapement is seductive; it ^conforms to the require- 
ment of giving impulse across the line of centers, and at one time it was 
considered an excellent arrangement, but it has proved to be quite unre- 
liable. The best proportion of its parts and the finest work are insuflSci- 
ent to prevent its setting. On the introduction of the lever it declined, 
and is rarely made now. 

DUPLEX HOOK. The impulse pallet in the duplex escapement. 

DUPLEX ROLLER. The ruby roller of the duplex escapement. 

DUST BANDS. Thin metal bands or guards which are inserted 
between the upper and lower plates of a movement to exclude all dust. 

EARNSHAW, THOMAS. A celebrated watchmaker of London, 
who was born at Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, in 1749, and died in 
1814. He was the inventor of the spring detent escapement and the 



135 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

compensation balance, both substantially as now used in chronometers. 
He made his improvement in the spring detent in 
1 781. He presented a petition to the Board of 
Longitude for aid in 1791, and again in 1797. He 
received his long-contested reward, Dec. 27, 1805. 




EAST, EDWARD. A celebrated watch and 
clockmaker of London. He was one of the ten 
original assistants appointed by the Charter of 
Incorporation of the Clockmakers' Company in 
1632. Was Warder in 1638.9, Master in 1645-52, 
Treasurer in 1637, being the only occupant of the Thomas Eamshaw. 
latter office in the history of the company. He was watchmaker to 
Charles 1. 

ELECTROPLATING, BRONZING AND STAINING. The 
first requisite in attempting to do electroplating in a small way is to under- 
stand the battery and to select one that will give an electric current of the 
proper intensity and quantity for the required time, without too much 
■care and attention on the part of the workman. Were he provided 
"with measuring instruments, so that he could readily determine when 
his current was changing in quantity and power, the choice of a battery 
would not beef so much importance; but volt meters and ampere meters 
are too expensive to be possessed by the average man who does plating in 
a small way, and he is necessarily obliged to depend on theory in 
arranging his forces and judge of the results by the appearance of his 
work in the bath. Hence it is important that he should have an under- 
standing of the nature of the action in the battery and be able to maintain 
the requisite conditions from the appearance of the battery itself. 

Without attempting to give too close a definition, electricity may be 
defined as a force or energy which is the result of a displacement of the 
normal balance of forces between two elements in close connection with 
one another. This normal force is called the potential of its element, 
and if two elements having different potentials, are connected together 
and placed in a fluid which will produce chemical action upon one or 
both, the result will be a flowing of energy through the connection to the 
element having the lowest potential. This will be kept up as long as the 
chemical action continues and the connection between the two elements 
remains unbroken. It will be readily seen that, owing to the varying 
potentials of the different elements, the varying facility of the conductors 
used to connect them, and the varying intensity of chemical action in 
the solution employed, the electrical current will vary in strength (or 
voltage) in different batteries, and in quantity, according to the size of 
the elements and the freedom with which they are attacked by the solu- 
tion. 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 136 

Voltage is the measure of strength or intensity of the current and 
depends upon the difference of potentials of the elements and the kind of 
chemical action between them. It is the same for the same combination, 
regardless of the size of the elements. Thus, a battery the size of a 
thimble has the same voltage as one the size of a door, if the elements 
and solution are the same. We have not the space to explain this at 
length, but will simply state that the volt is the recognized unit of the 
measurement of strength of electric currents. 

The ampere is the unit of measurement of the quantity of currents. 
Amperage depends on the size of the elements; and the available amper- 
age depends on the size of the conductors and the freedom of action 
between the elements. Amperage is consumed by doing work or by the 
heating of insufficient conductors, or by undue resistance in the battery, 
just as power is consumed in turning steel, or m running shafting, or 
overcoming the resistance caused by friction of boxes on a shaft that 
is run without oil. Strictly speaking, if the voltage or intensity of the 
current be sufficient to do the work required, then the amperage is the 
force used to do the work, and it is destroyed by that work and the 
chemical or electrical resistance, just as mechanical power is consumed 
in running a lathe or doing any other work. From this, it .ollows, that 
in order to operate economically, extreme care should be taken that the 
connections be large enough to carry the current easily ; that the solu- 
tion be kept in perfect order, both in the battery and the plating vat; and 
that all joints be kept bright and firm so as to insure perfect contact and 
offer no resistance to the passage of the current. 

The current always flows from the element having the highest poten- 
tial (called the + or positive pole) along the wire and through the solu- 
tion in the plating vat, to the other wire, and thence to the negative pole, 
carrying with it in passing through the solution, particles of metal from 
the anode and depositing it on the article to be electroplated (called the 
cathode); hence care should be taken to a/way.? get the cathode affixed 
to the negative ( — ) pole of the battery, in order that it may receive the 
deposit. 

Electrical resistance is that property of conductors (wires, solutions, 
objects, etc.) by which they tend to reduce the intensity of a current 
passing through them. The practical unit of resistance is the ohm. 
The number of amperes of current flowing through a circuit is equal 
to the number of volts of electro motive force, divided by the number of 
ohms of resistance in the entire circuit, that is from positive pole clear 
through wires, solution and battery, back to the starting point. Thus it 
will be seen that if the resistance be greater than the voltage of 
one cell will overcome, no current will flow, and the voltage must be 
increased to such an amount as will allow the desired quantity of current 
to pass. This is done by coupling cells in various ways, which will be 
explained at length further on. 



137 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

The resistance of a conducting wire is directly proportional to its 
length, and inversely proportional to the square of its diameter; hence it 
follows that the short and large wires cause less loss of current than 
smaller and longer ones. 

In all batteries the resistance increases with the distance between the 
elements, and decreases when the immersed surfaces are increased. 
The resistance is also increased by the bubbles of hydrogen liberated at 
the positive pole sticking to it in great numbers. Hydrogen is a noncon- 
ductor and prevents the action of the solution on the metal. When 
this takes place to such an extent as to stop chemical action altogether^ 
no current will pass and the battery is said to be polarized. 

These remarks are intended to aid in the intelligent selection of bat- 
teries, etc., those who, having to deal with such apparatus, yet have 
never had the opportunity to study an electrical treatise. We are often 
asked: What is the best battery.'' We can only answer: There is no 
best battery ; that is, no battery is suited to all kinds of work. That 
which is best in one case niay be worst in another. The suitability of a 
battery for any special purpose depends on what is called its constants, 
i. e., electro-motive force and internal resistance. In order to be really- 
perfect a battery should fulfill the following conditions: 

1. It electro-motive force should be high and constant. 

2. Its internal resistance should be small. 

3. It should give a c6nstant current and must therefore be free from 
polarization, and not liable to rapid exhaustion, requiring frequent re- 
newal of material. 

4. It should consume no material when the circuit is open. 

5. It should be cheap and of durable materials. 

6. It should be manageable and, if possible, should not emit corrosive 
fumes. 

No single battery fulfills all these conditions, however, and, as we 
have already intimated, some batteries are better for one purpose and 
some for another. Thus, for telegraphing through a long line of wire, a 
considerable internal resistance is of no great consequence, as it is but a 
small fraction of the total resistance in circuit. For electric gas lighting 
or other low resistance circuits, on the other hand, much internal resist- 
ance would be, if not absolutely fatal, certainly a positive disadvantage. 
The most reliable batteries for electroplating work are the Daniel, Grav- 
itv, Bunsen, Smee and Carbon, which we will accordingly describe in 
their order. 

The Daniell, Fig. 118, consists of a glass or stoneware jar, containing 
a cylinder of copper surrounding a porous clay cup, in which stands a 
cylinder of zinc. At the upper part of the copper sheet is a pocket of 
perforated copper, which is filled with crystals of sulphate of copper. 
The object of the pocket is simply to hold the sulphate up to the top of 
the solution, so that it will dissolve more readily, and any other method 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 



138 



would do as well. In charging this battery, the glass vessel and the 
porous cup are filled with water, and crystals of sulphate of copper are 
put in the pocket. If wanted for immediate use, a small quantity of 
sulphate of zinc may be dissolved in water and added to the porous cup; 
if not wanted immediately, the battery may be short circuited by connect- 
ing the zinc and copper elements by a 
piece of copper wire, and it will attain 
its full strength in ten or twelve hours. 
A little sulphuric acid dropped in the 
porous cup will answer just as well, if 
sulphate of zinc is not on hand. The 
chemical action of this battery is as 
follows: The zinc decomposes the 
water, forming oxide of zinc and libera- 
ting the hydrogen. The oxide of zinc 
attacks the sulphate of vitriol, depriving 
it of the acid, which forms sulphate 
of zinc, and leaving it as oxide of 
copper ; the oxide of copper is thereupon 
attacked by the hydrogen, which com- 
bines with the oxygen and forms water, 
while the metallic copper falls to the 
bottom as a fine powder. It will thus 
he seen that action is simple and continuous, no fumes are given off, and 
all that is required to maintain the action is a regular supply of copper 
isulphate to keep the fluid in the outer jar, near the point of saturation. 
The most prominent fault of this battery is the tendency of the copper to 
iill the pores of the cup, and thus decrease the action of the battery. It 
■can be partially prevented by coating the bottom and about a quarter of 
an inch of the sides of the porous cup with wax, and brushing off the 
deposit as fast as it is formed. The battery should not be allowed to stand 
•on open circuit without the zinc element being removed, and the sul- 
phate of zinc solution in the cup should not be heavier than 25° B, nor 
lighter than 15 ' B. If these precautions are observed, the battery should 
give a constant and free current as long as any zinc remains. Its 
•electro-motive force is about 1.07 volt, and a gallon cell will give about 
one-half ampere, when in good order, on a short circuit. Its internal 
resistance varies, but should not be allowed to exceed three to five ohms. 




Fig. 118. 



The Gravity Battery. In consequence of the trouble caused by the 
precipitation of the copper on the porous cell in the Daniell battery, 
Cromwell F. Varley, in 1854, while experimenting, found that the differ- 
■ence in specific gravity between solutions of sulphate of copper and sul- 
phate of zinc was sufficient in itself to entirely separate them, the copper 
solution lying at the bottom of the cell, and the zinc solution remaining 



130 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 




Fig. 119. 



superposed upon it. He accordingly dispensed with the porous cup, placed 
his copper element at the bottom, and the zinc near the top of a glass 
jar, and thus originated the gravity battery of to-day. It is the simplest, 
most reliable and constant form known, and has displaced all others for 
closed circuit work, requiring a low voltage, such as telegraphing, etc. 
Its voltage, when first set up, is 1.07, running down under constant work 
to .90, and a gallon cell will give one half ampere on short circuit. The 
form of cell shown in Fig. 119 is known as the " crowfoot," on account 

of the manner in which the zinc (positive) 
element is spread out, to expose a large surface 
of zinc to the solution. It is the form used for 
telegraphing, and, therefore, can be readily 
attained anywhere. Of course, other forms, 
shapes and sizes can be made at the option of 
the workman. To set up this battery, the copper 
strip, being unfolded so as to form a cross, is 
placed at the bottom of a jar, the zinc is sus- 
pended from the top as shown, and clean water, 
containing one-tenth of a saturated solution of 
sulphate of zinc is added, until it nearly touches 
the zinc. Sulphate of copper crystals are then 
added one by one until, if the battery is meant to be continually 
used, they nearly cover the top of the copper strip. If the battery 
is not intended for continual use, it will be found more advantageous 
to use but a few ounces of sulphate of copper, as the more concen. 
trated the solution, the greater is the tendency to local action. The 
sulphate of zinc may be dispensed with if the battery is not required 
for immediate use; in this case, the latter should be short circuited, 
and left so for several days. The need of blue vitriol will be indicated 
by the discoloration of the lower stratum of the liquid. It is best to 
keep the line marking the two solutions about halfway between the 
zinc and copper. Should the sulphate of zinc become too concen- 
trated, a portion of it should be removed by means of a syringe or cup, 
and its place supplied by water. To determine when this is necessary, 
a hydrometer may be used Below 15^ the solution is too weak; above 
25° it is too strong, and should be diluted. If the battery is taken care 
of from month to month, it should not require a thorough cleaning 
more than once a year When this is done the deposits formed upon 
the surface of tlie zinc should be scraped off, the jars washed and the 
liquids renewed as in the beginning. 

It, however, the batteries are in constant use, care must be taken to 
keep the zincs clean and the solutions as indicated above. If the sul- 
phate of zinc is allowed to become saturated, it will crystalize on the 
zinc and on the edge of the jar, gradually creeping over the edge. This 
should be wiped off with a damp cloth and a little oil or fat smeared over 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 



140 



the top of the jar to prevent creeping. The jars should not be disturbed^ 
as this would cause the two solutions to mix, and they should be kept in 
a dry, even temperature, (60° to 80° F). Freezing would stop the action 
of the battery. 



The Bunsen, or Carbon Battery. Fig. 120, consists of a glass jar 
containing a hollow zinc cylinder, slit on one side to allow a free circu- 
lation of the solution; within this stands a porous cup containing a bar 
of carbon. To charge this battery, the amalgamated zinc is placed in 
the glass jar, the porous jar in the center of the zinc cylinder and the 
carbon in the porous jar. In the outer jar is sul- 
phuric acid, diluted with twelve times its weight 
of water and in the porous jar electropoion fluid. 
(See Electropoion Fluids page 143). 

The voltage of this battery is 2.028; its amper- 
age cannot be given, as it depends largely upon 
the care which is given the battery, the size of 
the cell and the condition of the porous cups, 
which vary greatly in porousity and conducting 
power. It emits fumes of hydrogen and sulphur- 
ous acid if not in good condition, and should not 
be used in the same room with fine tools or 
metal work that is liable to injury. It soon runs 
down, requiring recharging every day when in 
constant use, but is simple to handle when understood and is generally 
furnished in small outfits for nickel plating, etc., on account of its high 
voltage and the quantity of current given off when in good order. The 
zincs must be kept well amalgamated or they will polarize very rapidly 
and destroy the current; care should also be taken that no sediment be 
allowed to accumulate in the porous cup and fill its pores, thus stopping 
the action. It is more expensive to run than the gravity, as the zincs 
are eaten by the acid much faster, especially if not kept well amal- 
gamated ; but it will deliver a greater quantity of current in a given time 
than a gravity cell of equal size. The internal resistance of a new cell 
is about one-half an ohm. The plates should be removed and cleaned, 
when the battery is not in use. 




Fig. 120. 



The Smee Battery. Fig. 121, consists of two plates of amalgamated 
zinc, between which is placed a silver plate coated with platinum, the 
object ot the platinum being to fill the surface of the plate with inumer- 
able fine points which aid in discharging the bubbles of hydrogen which 
would cling closely to it if the plate were smooth and thus polarize the 
battery. This battery is charged with a solution of one part sulphuric 
acid to seven of water. The plates are connected to the clamp and 



141 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

placed in jar. In this battery, above all, the precaution of amalgamating 
the zinc should never be neglected. With an unamalgamated zinc the 
results are very unsatisfactory. 

The voltage of the Smee, when not in action, .s 1.09 volts; when in 
action it runs down to .482 volts; this is caused by the hydrogen clinging 
to the plate as described. This was the form of cell generally used 
before the introduction of dynamos for electrotyping and other heavy 
work, and it is still used to a large extent. It emits fumes of hydrogen 
when in action, but it is a single fluid battery and when working in large 
sizes, plates 12x12 inches in size are suspended in a large tank of acidu- 
lated water, first a plate of zinc, then a plate of platinized silver, then 
another of zinc and so on alternately, zinc and platinum, to the end. 
This gives great facility in handling, as any number 
of plates to suit the work may be placed in the tank. 
As there is but one tank and the plates may be placed 
close together or far apart as required, the resistance 
may be easily made to balance that in the depositing 
tank, and thus the work will be performed under the 
most favorable conditions. 

In working the Smee, or any other battery for that |i 
matter, large tanks are better than small ones, pro- ~- 
vided that the plates are kept close together so as to 
reduce internal resistance of the battery. In the 
large Smee, if plates 12x12 are worked in a tank say ^^^' ^^^• 

15x15x30, it will not be long before the sulphate of zinc, which forms 
and falls to the bottom, will soon commence to rise in the tank, thus 
shutting off the acid from a portion of the plates and reducing the 
quantity of current. If the same plates were worked in a tank 24x24x30, 
the tank might be permitted to become half full of zinc sulphate before 
the action would be impaired at all, and thus a much more even and 
constant current would be maintained; this is generallvdone in practice. 
In a gravity battery, however, the tank ought not to be deep, because the 
two elements should not be more than eight inches apart on account of 
the increased resistance caused by the separation. The tank, however, 
may be made large enough in length and width to contain elements of 
the desired size, or a number of standard zincs and coppers, if such an 
arrangement seems desirable, either to increase the facility of handling 
or to reduce the cost of a large number of jars, wires, connections, etc. 
We have seen a number of tanks made of wood, lined with lead, 10x10- 
x6o inches, in which a single large copper element was placed at the 
bottom and a number of zincs hung as required from an insulated 
copper bar across the top. It seemed to work well and was convenient. 

A few words as to coupling batteries may be of service. It should be 
born in mind that the quantity of current flowing in any circuit is the 
quotient resulting from dividing the voltage by the total resistance in that 




Electro-Plating, Etc. 



142 



circuit and that the resistance may be increased or diminished by 
increasing or dimishing the distance between the elements of the battery, 
and between the anode and cathode in the plating vat; also that the 
resistance varies inversely, as the surface of the elements immersed. 
Thus a plating surface of one square foot in the plating vat will offer 
four times as much resistance as four square feet. It thus becomes pos- 
sible by increasing or diminishing the voltage of a current to keep the 




current flowing in the desirea quantity', and by keeping the resistance in 
the battery about equal to that in the vats the highest economy is 
obtained. 

For example, let us take eight cells, having a voltage of i, and giving 
say K ampere per cell on short circuit. If we now couple then — , +, 
— , +, — , +, — , +, we shall have the voltage of 8 and the amperage of 
one cell of the same size with a voltage of eight, in other words, the 
same amount of current and eight times the strength of the single cell, 
as in Fig. 122. 

This is termed coupling in series, and would be used in solutions 
having a high resistance and small amount of surface immersed. If, on 
the other hand, the solution had a low resistance and large surface 
exposed, so that the voltage of one cell was ample to force the current 




-*C 



Fig. 123. 

through the circuit, they should be connected +, -f, +, +, +, +, +, +, 
and — , — , — , — , — , — , _, — , giving the quantity of eight cells and the 
voltage of one, which amounts to nearly the same thing as if a single 
battery having eight times the surface of the single cell were used. 
This is termed coupling in multiple, Fig. 123. Similarly, if they were 
coupled +, — , +, _, +, — , +, — and +, — , +, — , +, — , -f, and those 
two were joined as in Fig. 124, we should have the equivalent of a bat. 
tery possessing a voltage of four, and elements twice the size of the 
single cell. This would be spoken of as a battery of eight cells in series^ 



143 



Electro-Plating, Etc, 



of four. Also four multiples, in series of two, might be arranged to give 
a voltage of two and quantity due to cells of four times the size of a 
single cell, as shown in Fig. 125. As the amperes 
'" ^ of current passing per second depends upon the 
voltage, divided by the number of ohms resist- 
ance, in the circuit, it will be seen that the current 
can be controlled by coupling and by manipulat- 
ing the resistance. 

To Amalgamate Zincs. This may be very 
well done by first iminersing the zincs in a solu- 
tion of dilute sulphuric acid and then in a bath of 
mercury. A brush or cloth may be used to rub 
them, so as to reach all points of the surface. 
Where a large quantity is to be amalgamated^ 
the following will be found to be a good method : 
Dissolve eight ounces of mercury in a mixture 
Fig. 124. consisting of two lbs. of hydrochloric and one lb. 

of nitric acid ; when the solution is complete, add three lbs. more 
of hydrochloric acid. The zinc is amalgamated by immersing it 
in this solution for a few seconds, quickly removing to a vat of clear 
water and rubbing it, as in the first case, with a brush or cloth. If the 
solution is kept in a covered vessel it may be used a number of times. 
In all batteries in which acids are used the zincs should be kept well 
amalgamated and should be 
removed from the solution 
when not in use. This is very 
important and should not be 
overlooked. 



C~ 





Improved Electropoion 
Fluid. Add one part (by vol- 
ume) of sulphuric acid to 10 
parts of water. Of 10 pounds 

(or pints) of the dilute acid, ^^^- ^^■^• 

add from i to 2 pounds of chromic acid, according to the strength 
of current desired. Where constant action over a long time is desired, 
rather than maximum energy, omit part or all of the sulphuric acid. 

Bichromate of potash is no longer used for batteries by intelligent 
workers. It owes its virtues to a small amount of chromic acid which 
can be obtained from it by reaction. Pure chromic acid is cheaper for 
the same work, and is free from many of the difficulties attendant on 
the use of the bichromate. 

Connections. Having a knowledge of the theoretical action of the 
battery, the next question is the connections. Cleanliness cannot be too 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 



144 



strongly insisted upon in making joints, etc. The plater should make it 
an invariable rule to see that all surfaces of wires, screws, etc., through 
which the current must pass, be kept bright on the surfaces, through 
which electrical contact is made. When joining wires they should be 
brightened with a file, or with emery cloth, and then twisted firmly 
together with a pair of pliers; all permanent connections should be care- 
fully soldered and the holes and the ends of screws in binding posts 
should be kept bright; and if for permanent use all conducting wires 
should be of pure copper, well insulated. The following table shows in 
the last column the loss of current in wires carrying an economical 
amount of current; if the wire be too small this loss is rapidly quadru- 
pled until the wire burns. The economy of using large and short con- 
nections will be apparent after a slight study of this table. 

Table showing the Weight, Carrying Capacity and Loss in 
Volts of different sizes Copper Wire. 



w 

"v 
a 

rt . 
J= O 

<a (U 

go 

CQ 


3 U 
O C 

C^ 
•- ' o 

Oj en 
.2 rt 

Q 


S 

o 
<u u 

^•> 

3 rt 

o-° 

Oh 


Approximate weight 
Underwriters' In- 
sulation, per 1000 
feet. 


< 
c 
*j 

c 

u 

u 
u 

p. '^ 

C/3 


Loss in Volts per 
Ampere per 100 
feet of line (2 
Wire.) 


0000 


.46 

.40964 

.3648 

.32495 

.2893 

.25763 

.22943 

.20431 

.18194 

.16202 

.14428 

.12849 

.11443 

.10189 

.090742 

.080808 

.071961 

.064084 

.057068 

.05082 

.045257 

.040303 


640.5 

508.5 
402.8 
319.6 
253.4 
201.0 
159.3 
126.4 
100.1^ 
79 46 
6301 
49.98 
39 64 
31.43 
24.93 
19.77 
15 68 
12.43 
9 86 
7.82 
6.20 
4.92 


825 lbs. 
610 lbs. 
458 lbs. 
385 lbs. 
308 lbs. 
249 lbs. 
201 lbs. 
163 lbs. 
133 lbs. 
109 lbs. 

90 lbs. 

74 lbs. 

62 lbs. 

53 lbs. 

43 lbs. 

36 lbs. 

30 lbs. 

25 lbs. 

21 lbs. 

18 lbs. 

15 lbs. 

13 lbs. 


812. 

262. 

220. 

185. 

156. 

131. 

110. 
92 3 
77.6 
65.2 
54.8 
46.1 
38.7 
32.5 
27.3 
23. 
19.3 
162 
18 6 
11.5 
9.6 
8.1 


.0098 


000 


.0123 


00 


.0155 





.0196 


1 


.0247 


2 


.0311 


3 


.0392 


4 


.0495 


5 


.0624 


6 


.0787 


7 


.0992 


8 


.125 


9 


.158 


10 


.199 


11 


.251 


12 


316 


13 

14 


.399 
.503 


15 


634 


16 


•799 


17 


1088 


18 


1.271 







145 Electro-Plating, Etc 

No matter what battery be used, there are several preliminary con- 
ditions that must be complied with in order to produce satisfactory 
results, i. e. that the deposition may adhere firmly and take place uni- 
formly. It is absolutely necessary that the pure metallic surface of the 
article be exposed, and that it be perfectly free from grease. The 
articles to be plated, if lustrous surfaces are desired, must first be ground 
and polished. The grease must be removed from the surface by boiling 
in potash or caustic soda, and this is followed by scouring with freshly 
burnt lime, pulverized thoroughly and free from all grit. If the article 
will not stand heat, cleanse with benzine. In order to free the surface 
of non-metallic substances, if the article be of iron, steel or silver, dip it 
in a mixture of i part by weight of sulphuric acid, to 15 of water; if cop- 
per or brass, the articles are first dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, and then 
in a mixture of 100 parts, by weight, of nitric acid, 50 of sulphuric acid, 
I of common salt and i of soot. As soon as the surface of the article 
assumes a bright appearance, it is washed in clean water once or twice, 
avoiding handling with the fingers or greasy cloths. Wooden plyers, 
kept clean, serve well for handling. 

Avoid the injurious fumes produced by the acids, by operating in the 
open air or in the draft of a chimney. In order to determine whether 
the article is entirely free from grease, dip it into water, and if all 
grease is removed, the water will adhere uniformly; if, however, lines 
and spots appear, the article is not thoroughly clean, and must again be 
put through the cleasing process. 

Gold Baths. Both warm and cold baths are used, the former being 
preferable, as they yield denser depositions, require less strength of 
current and need not be so rich in gold as cold baths. Baths often 
differ with the tastes of the electroplater, so that it is difficult to state 
what is best. However, the bath prepared with potassium cyanide is 
very extensively used by the trade and is considered the most profitable. 
In purchasing your chloride of gold where possible, get the brown 
neutral variety, as it is preferable to others, as it contains less acid. 

A good warm bath, Brannt says, is prepared as follows : Neutral 
chloride of gold, 0.35 oz. ; 99 per cent potassium cyanide, 0.7 oz- ; water i 
quart. Dissolve the potassium cyanide in one-half of the water and the 
chloride in the other half, mix both solutions and boil for an halfan hour, 
replacing the water lost by evaporation. An excess of potassium 
cyanide in the gold bath must be avoided, as it causes a pale color in 
the gilding. As anodes, it is best to use sheets of fine gold, which grad- 
ually dissolve, and thus convey fresh metal to the bath. The current 
must not be so strong that a formation of bubbles is perceptible; it is 
best to use a current of such strength only that deposition takes place 
slowly, a coating of the greatest density being thus obtained. Avoid 
using cheap and inferior chemicals, as the difference in price is more 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 146 

than offset by the time and damage that often results from 
inferior grades. To obtain good results, always use as pure water as 
possible, filtered rain water being the most desirable. The best tempera- 
ture for cold baths is 66° F. Care should also be taken to see that the 
baths are covered with cloths to exclude dust, and where it does penetrate 
the baths should be skimmed off. 

Only copper, brass and bronze can be directly gilded ; other metals 
must first be coppered or brassed; this applies to good work. In gild- 
ing parts of watches, gold is seldom directly applied upon the copper; 
there is generally a preliminary operation called graining by which a 
slightly dead appearance is given to the articles. They are thoroughly 
finished, all grease removed as described above, threaded upon a brass 
wire, cleansed in the compound acids for a bright luster, and dried in 
sawdust. The pieces are fastened upon the flat side of a piece of cork 
by means of brass pins, and the parts are thoroughly rubbed over with a 
clean brush dipped in a paste composed of fine pumice stone powder and 
■water. The brush is moved in circles in order to rub evenly. Thor- 
oughly rinse in clean water in order to remove every particle of pumice 
stone, both from the article and the cork. Place the whole in a weak 
mercurial solution, composed of nitrate of mercury ^j oz. ; water 2^ gal; 
sulphuric acid i oz; which will slightly whiten the copper. Pass quickly 
through this solution and then rinse. After the parts are grained in 
the manner described, they may be gilded the same as ordinary work. 
For the production of a thick deposit frequent scratch-brushing of the 
articles is absolutely necessary, the brush being moistened with a decoc- 
tion of soap-root or a solution of tartar. 

Red Gold. To obtain red gold, a solution of copper cyanide in potas- 
sium cyanide is added in small portions until the desired tone is 
obtained ; it may also be obtained by suspending a few copper anodes 
beside the gold anodes. 

Green Gold. To obtain green gold add cyanide or chloride of silver 
dissolved in potassium cyanide, or suspend silver anodes beside the 
gold anodes. 

Dead Luster. This is effected by various means. The article to be 
plated may, by the means of acids, be given a dead luster surface before 
plating, or it may be eft'ected by the slow deposit of a large quantity of 
gold. The latter is the most desirable but most expensive. If the 
article be of brass it may be dipped in a mixture of 3 parts of nitric acid, 
containing 1 part of zinc in solution, with 8 parts of pure, strong, nitric 
acid and 8 parts of boiling sulphuric acid. After the effervescence has 
ceased the brass is taken out and is found to have assumed a dead brown 
surface. After being drawn through strong nitric acid, it assumes a lus- 
trous surface. 



147 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

Imitation Damaskeen in Gold and Silver. A beautiful effect is pro- 
duced on iron and steel objects by imitation damaskeen in gold or silver. 
First copper the entire surface of the articles, and by means of liquid 
asphalt trace upon their surfaces the figures or lines to appear in gold or 
silver. By then dipping the articles into a solution of chromic acid the 
coppering is dissolved where it is not protected by the asphalt. The 
asphalt is then removed by the application of oil of turpentine, and the 
gilding executed in the usual manner. The same result is achieved with 
platinum articles by substituting nitric for chromic acid. 

Silver Baths. Brannt says, that for ordinary galvanic silvering 0.35 
oz. of fine silver ( = 0.56 oz. of nitrate of silver, or 0.47 oz. of chloride 
of silver), is dissolved in a solution of 0.7 oz. of 98 per cent potassium 
cyanide in i quart of water. For heavy silvering of knives, forks, etc., a 
stronger bath is used: 0.88 oz. of fine silver ( = 1.17 oz. of chloride of 
silver, or 1.03 oz. of cyanide of silver,) is dissolved in a solution of 1.75 
oz. of 98 per cent potassium cyanide in i quart of water. No accurate 
statement can be made in regard to the quantity of potassium cyanide 
in the bath, as it depends on the strength of the current used. With a 
very weak current, and consequently slow precipitation, somewhat 
more potassium cyanide may be used than with a stronger current and 
more rapid precipitation. The anodes, for which fine silver is used, will 
indicate by their appearance whether the bath contains too much or too 
little potassium cyanide. They should become gray during silvering, 
and gradually resume their white color after the interruption of the 
current. If they remain white during silvering, the bath contains too 
much potassium cyanide, and, if they turn black, and retain this color 
after the interruption of the current, potassium cyanide should be added.. 

The article to be silvered should be moved constantly to avoid the for- 
mation of streaks. Before silvering the metals must be prepared by 
amalgamation. This is done by dipping the articles, previously freed 
from grease, as explained above, in a dilute solution of mercurous nitrate 
(30 to 150 grains per qt.); allowing them to remain in the solution only 
long enough to become uniformly white. Rinse them in water, brush 
eff with a clean soft brush, and immediately place in the silver bath. 
Steel, iron, zinc, tin, nickel and Britannia ware must first be coppered" 
and then amalgamated before being placed in the bath. 

The articles remain in the bath from ten to fifteen minutes, when they 
show a uniformly white surface ; they are then taken out, scratch brushed 
with a brass brush to see that the deposit adheres, all grease removed, 
and then placed in the bath. After the current is shut off, the articles 
should be left in the bath a few seconds to prevent the deposit from turn- 
ing yellow. 

If the articles are not to be burnished, but are to be left with a mat as 
they come from the bath, they must be thoroughly rinsed in water 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 148 

without coming in contact with the fingers or the sides of the vessel, then 
dipped in clean hot water and hung up to dry. They then should be 
coated with a colorless laquer to prevent turning yellow. If the articles 
are to have a polished surface, they are to be finally scratch-brushed 
with frequent moistening with soap-root, dried in warm sawdust and 
burnished with a steel or stone burnisher. 

Nickel Baths. Iron and steel must be prepared by immersing in a 
hot solution of caustic soda or potash, thoroughly brushed, rinsed in 
water and dipped in a pickle of i part sulphuric acid, 2 parts hydro- 
chloric acid and 10 parts of water, again rinsed, thoroughly rubbed with 
fine well washed pumice stone or Vienna lime, again rinsed and put in 
the bath. If finely polished tools, they may be brushed with whiting or 
tripoli instead of pumice stone. Copper wire should be tightly wound 
around all metal articles. Small articles may be suspended from cop- 
per hooks. The battery or dynamo is placed in action before immersing 
the articles, which remain in the bath until they have acquired a white 
appearance, which will be in from five to thirty minutes, depending on 
the strength of the current and the size of the article. In case the 
article assumes a gray or black color, or feels rough and gritty, the cur- 
rent is too strong, or if it assumes a yellowish white appearance, it is too 
weak. The simplest nickel bath consists of a solution of pure double 
sulphate of nickel and ammonium 8 to 10 parts by w^eight in 100 parts of 
distilled water. Boil the salt in a corresponding quantity of water, say 8 
to 10 parts of nickel-salt to 100 of water, depending on the tempera- 
ture. With this bath cast nickel anodes and a strong current should be 
used. The article after its removal from the bath should be dipped for a 
few seconds in boiling water, drained and dried in warm sawdust. They 
may then be polished, but cannot be burnished. The luster on nickel- 
plated objects depends greatly on the polish given them before plating. 
The composition of nickel baths depends greatly upon the metals to be 
operated on, which can best be determined by experiment. The anodes 
should be suspended by strong hooks of pure nickel wire, and the 
articles should be placed at a distance of from 3^ to, 4^ inches from 
them. If the article is to receive a thick deposit, it should be turned in 
the bath from time to time, from end to end, so that those portions 
which were down come up. Small articles which cannot be suspended 
are placed in a sieve, it being preferable to use a heated bath for the 
purpose. Iron, steel, copper, brass and bronze are usually nickeled 
directly, but Britannia ware, zinc and tin are coppered or brassed before 
nickeling. In case a freshly prepared bath yields a dark deposit it can 
generally be remedied by working the bath for two or three hours. 

Doctoring. This term is applied to plating defective places which 
occurred either by accident or negligence on the part of the operator. 



149 Electro-Plating, Etc, 

It is equally applicable to gold, silver or nickel plated articles. Take a 
piece of the anode, be it gold, silver or nickel, about the size of your 
little finger and connect it with the positive pole by a thin copper wire. 
Around this anode wrap a piece of ordinary muslin several times; hold 
the defective article on the top of the positive pole, and after dipping 
the anode in the solution^ until the muslin is thoroughly soaked, move 
it to and fro over the defective place, and a coating is thus formed. 

Aluminum Baths. Reinbold's formula for an aluminum bath which 
is said to give excellent results is as follows: In 300 parts, by weight, ^ 
of water, dissolve 50 parts of alum, and to this add 10 parts of aluminum 
chloride. Heat to 200^ F. and when cold, add 39 parts of cyanide of 
potassium. Use a feeble current. Aluminum is one of the most diffi- 
cult and uncertain of metals to deposit electrically. 

Brass Baths. Carbonate of soda 10 j4 ozs. ; water 10 qts. ; neutral 
acetate of copper 43^ ozs. ; chloride of zinc 4^ oz.; bisulphate of soda 7 
ozs.; potassum cyanide, 98 per cent, 14 ozs.; arsenious acid 30^ grs. 
Dissolve the carbonate of soda in 5 quarts of water, and then add gradu- 
ally the bisulphate of soda. Now stir together the acetate of copper and 
chloride of zinc with 2 quarts of the water,and slowly and with constant 
stirring, pour the mixture into the solution of the soda salts. Add the 
solution of potassum of cyanide in 3 quarts of water, then the arsenious 
acid, and boil the whole for a few hours, replacing the water lost by 
evaporation; when cold filter the solution. 

Copper Baths. The composition of these baths must depend on the 
purposes for which they are to be used. The acid copper bath is used 
for plastic deposits of copper, but cannot be used for the electro-posi- 
tive metals, zinc, iron, tin, etc., as they decompose the solution and 
separate from it pulverulent copper, while an equivalent portion of zinc, 
iron, etc , is dissolved. Alkaline baths are therefore exclusively 
employed with these metals. 

A good bath is prepared by Brannt as follows: Water, 10 qts.; crys- 
tallized bisulphide of soda, 7 oz. ; crystallized carbonate of soda, 14 ozs. ; 
neutral acetate of copper, 7 oz. ; potassium cyanide, 75 per cent, 7 ozs. ; 
spirit of sal-ammoniac 44 ozs. 

In order to get a good copper deposit on wax figures, etc., brush the 
figure with alcohol, and then brush with finely pulverized plumbago 
with a soft hair brush, until the plumbago is thoroughly incorporated 
into the surface of the object. Place a copper wire in the wax figure 
and work the plumbago thoroughly over it with a brush, so as to make a 
perfect electric connection between the wire and the wax coating. A 
saturated solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol), and water is 
the made, stired frequently and left for 24 hours before using. A 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 160 

copper anode is used and is attached to the carbon or copper pole of the 
battery and the wax object, by means of its wire, is attached to the zinc 
pole. 

Recovery of Gold from Bath. To recover gold from bath evaporate 
the bath to dryness, mix the residue with litharge and fuse the mixture. 
A lead button is thus formed in which all the gold is contained. Dis- 
solve the button in nitric acid, and the gold will remain behind in the 
form of small flakes. Filter off and dissolve the flakes in aqua regia. 

Recovery of Silver from a Bath. To recover silver from cyanide 
bath; evaporate the bath to dryness, mix the residue with a small 
quantity of calcined soda and potassium cyanide and fuse in a crucible, 
and the metal will be found in the form of a button in the bottom of the 
crucible. 

Recovering* Gold from Coloring Bath. Dissolve a handful of 
sulphate of iron in boiling water, and add to it your "color" water; it 
precipites the small particles of gold. Now draw off the water, being 
very careful not to disturb the auriferous sediment at the bottom. You 
will now proceed to wash the sediment from all traces of acid with 
plenty of boiling water; it will require three or four separate washings, 
with sufficient time between each to allow the water to cool and the 
sediment to settle, before passing off the water. Then dry in an iron 
vessel by the fire and finally fuse in a covered ciucible, with a flux. 

A Grained or Matted Surface on Brass. Dissolve a little table 
salt in a mixture of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids. The 
articles are to be well ground and thoroughly clean. They are then 
suspended by a glass rod in the solution for few seconds. They are then 
withdrawn and afterwards dipped into hot water, after which they are 
scratch brushed with beer, for which operation you can use a brush of 
brass or German silver. This being done the parts are silvered with 
ease, and again scratch brushed and then gilt. In this manner an 
equally grained surface of a uniform and desirable color is obtained. 
The method is equally applicable to articles of copper or Gei man 
silver. A coarser grain can be obtained by the addition of a little more 
salt. 

Gilding Steel. Steel may be gilded by means of a solution of gold 
and ether. To do this a quantity of gold is dissolved in nitro-muriatic 
acid, and then boiled until the liquid evaporates, when the residue is 
dissolved afresh in water to which is added three times as much sulpuric 
ether. The liquid is then left for 24 hours in a bottle, tightly corked, 
after which time it will be seen to float on the surface of the water. If 



151 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

the steel is then dipped into it, it will become gilded immediately, and if 
designs have been painted on the surface of the metal with any varnish, 
a beautiful specimen of a steel and gilded surface is obtained. For 
other metals the galvanic process is emploj'cd. 

Nickel Plating Without a Battery. The article to be plated must 
be free from rust or greasy matter, and the chemicals be pure. Prepare 
a weak solution of chloride of zinc containing 5 to 10 per cent, of salt — 
say 1 to 2 ounces of the chloride to 9S or 99 ounces of water. To this add 
enough sulphate of nickel to turn the solution a deep green color; the 
solution is then heated to the boiling point in a wedgwood or other 
porcelain vessel. Next suspend the object in the water for half an hour, 
when a brilliant white coating will be formed; then wash the article and 
carefully dry it. Articles thus plated will bear light cleaning with 
whiting. The solution may then be poured off, filtered and used again 
with a small addition of the chloride of zinc and the sulphate of nickel. 
In like manner, a covering of cobalt may be obtained by using sulphate 
of cobalt in place of sulphate of nickel. The color of the cobalt is 
very nearly like that of polished steel, with a slight rose tint, but it does 
not rust. 

Nickel Plating by Boiling. Prepare a bath of pure granulated tin, 
tartar and water, which heat to the boiling point, and add a small quan- 
tity of pure red-hot nickel oxide. A portion of the nickel is soon dis- 
solved, as is shown by the green color assumed by the liquid which 
stands upon the grains of tin. If articles of copper or brass are plunged 
into the bath, they become covered in a few minutes with a white, beau- 
f ul, silvery metallic coating, which consists almost entirely of pure nickel. 
If a little carbonate or tartrate of cobalt is added to the bath a bluish 
shade, either light or dark, may be given to the coating, which becomes 
very brilliant when it is properly polished with chalk or dry Sawdust. 

Aniline Bronzing Fluid. A bronzing fluid which is said to be very 
brilliant, and applicable to all metals, as well as to other substances, is 
prepared as follows: Take 10 parts of aniline red, and 5 parts of aniline 
purple, and dissolve in 100 parts of 95 per cent alcohol, accelerating the 
solution by placing the vessel in a sand or water bath. Solution having 
been effected, add 5 parts of benzoic acid, and boil for from 5 to 10 min- 
utes, until the greenish color of the mixture has been converted into a 
fine, light-colored bronze, which is applied with a brush and dries quickly. 

Antique Bronze. The green stain of verdigris can be given to 
bronze by covering the spots to be discolored with ground horse radish 
saturated with vinegar, and keeping the mixture wet with the vinegar, 
until the stain has become fixed. This will require some days, for 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 152 

though the discoloration will show after a few hours, it will be super- 
ficial and vanish by wiping. Three or four days will, however, turn 
your bronze into an antique, so far as appearances go. 

Antique Green. An imitation of antique bronie can be applied to 
new articles by the following process: Dissolve 3 parts of common 
salt, I part of sal-ammoniac and 3 parts of powdered tartar in 12 parts 
of boiling water. Add 8 parts of a solution of cupric nitrate, and coat 
the articles with the liquid. 

Black Bronze for Brass, i. Dissolve i oz. of copper carbonate in 
8^ fluid ounces of spirit of sal-ammoniac. Add one pint of water and 
stir constantly. The articles to be colored should be suspended in the 
liquid by means of brass or copper wires for a short time. The coating 
adheres better if the articles are polished with coarse emery paper. 

2. Brush the brass with a solution of nitrate of mercury, and then 
several times with a solution of liver of sulphur.* 

Black Stain for Gun Barrels. Polish the barrels thoroughly and 
coat by means of a woolen rag, with a very thin layer of olive oil, and 
then dust over with hardwood ash. Heat over glowing coals and allow 
it to cool slowly ; when cool brush over with water containing a few 
drops of hydrochloric acid to the pint and then quickly wash in water. 
The iron portions of the damaskeened barrels will appear black while 
the steel portions will come out white. The barrel is then dried and 
finally rubbed with oil. 

Blue Bronze. Cleanse the metal from all grease by dipping in 
boiling potash lye and afterwards treat it with strong vinegar. Wipe 
and dry the article thoroughly, and rub it with a linen rag, moistened 
with hydrochloric acid. Allow the coating to dry for a quarter of an 
hour, and then heat the article on a sand bath, until it assumes the 
desired color, when it should be removed. 

Blue Stain for Iron and Steel. Make a mixture of hydrochloric 
acid 16 parts, fuming nitric acid 8, and butter of antimony 8. The 
hydrochloric acid should be added to the other ingredients a drop at a 
time to avoid heating. Apply the mixture to the metal (after thor- 
oughly polishing with lime) with a rag and rub with a piece of green 
young oak wood until the desired color is produced. 

Bronze for Copper. In 100 parts of acetic acid of moderate concen- 
tration, or in 200 parts of strong vinegar dissolve 30 parts of car- 
bonate of hydrochlorite of ammonium and 10 parts each of commori 

♦Fused sulphuret of potassium, so called from its resemblance to liver in color. 



153 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

salt, acetate of copper and cream of tartar. Rub the object with the 
solution and allow it to dry for forty-eight hours. The object will then 
be found entirely covered with verdigris. Brush with a waxed brush 
and especially the relieved portions. 

Bronze for Small Brass Articles. Oxide of iron, 3 parts ; white arse- 
nic, 8 parts; hydrochloric acid, 36 parts. Clean the brass thoroughly and 
apply with a brush until the desired color is obtained. Oil well and 
finish by varnishing or lacquering. 

Bronze Liquid. Dissolve sal-ammoniac i oz. ; alum, ^ oz ; arsenic, 
^ oz.; in strong vinegar, i pt. The compound is immediately fit for 
use, and, where the metal is good, is seldom found to fail. 

Bronze for Medals. The following process of bronzing is carried on 
in the Paris mint. Powder and mix i pound each of verdigris and sal- 
ammoniac. Take a quantity of this mixture, as large as a hen's egg^ 
and mix into a dough with vinegar. Place this in a copper pan (not 
tinned), boil in about 5 pints of water for 20 minutes, and then pour off 
the water. For bronzing, pour part of this fluid into a copper pan ; place 
the medals separately in it upon pieces of wood or glass, so that they do 
not touch each other, or come in contact with the copper pan, and then 
boil them in the liquid for a quarter of an hour. 

Bronze for Steel. Methylated spirit, i pint; gum shellac, 4 ounces; 
gum benzoin, }4 ounce. Set the bottle in a warm place, with occa- 
sional agitation. When dissolved, decant the clear part for fine work, 
and strain the dregs through muslin. Now take 4 ounces powdered 
bronze green, varying the color with yellow ochre, red ochre and lamp 
black, as may be desired. Mix the bronze powder with the above var- 
nish in quantities to suit, and apply to the work, after previously cleans- 
ing and warmmg the articles, giving them a second coat, and touching 
off with gold powder, if required, previous to varnishing. 

Brov7n Bronze. Brown bronze is prepared the same as blue bronze 
but the blue bronze is finally rubbed over with a linen rag saturated with 
olive oil, which will change the blue color into brown. 

Brown Stain for Copper. To produce a dark-brown color upon 
copper, take the white of an egg, beat it into froth, add a little boiled or 
rain water, and add to this mixture caput mortuum (red oxide of iron); 
rub them well together in a mortar, and sufficiently thick until the color 
covers, and may be applied. The copper articles are to be pickled and 
simply washed ; no sand must be used, else the color adheres badly. 
The latter is next applied with a brush until it covers the surface it is 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 154 

then dried by a fire, the article is gently rubbed with a soft rag and 
caput mortuum powder, and finally hammered with a hammer with pol. 
ished face. 

Brown Stain for Gun Barrels. Mix 12 parts of a solution of sul- 
phate of iron, 16 parts of sulphate of copper, 16 parts of sweet spirit of 
nitre and 12 parts of butter of antimony. Let the mixture stand in a 
well corked bottle for twenty-four hours and then add 500 parts of rain 
water. Thoroughly polish and clean the barrels, wash with fresh lime 
water, dry thoroughly and apply the mixture evenly with a piece of 
cotton. After drying for twenty-four hours, brush with a scratch brush 
and repeat the coating. Do this twice, the last time using leather 
moistened with olive oil in lieu of the scratch brush, rubbing thoroughly. 
After standing for ten or twelve hours, repeat the polishing with sweet 
oil and leather until a beautiful polish is obtained. 

Chinese Bronze. Small articles bronzed by this process possess a 
peculiar beauty, and lose none of their luster, even when exposed to 
atmospheric influences and rain. Powder and mix thoroughly 2 parts of 
crystalized verdigris, 2 parts of cinnabar, 2 of sal-ammoniac, 2 of bills 
and livers of ducks, and 5 of alum. Moisten the mixture with water or 
spirit of wine, and rub into a paste; cleanse the article to be bronred thor- 
oughly, and polish with ashes and vinegar. Then apply the paste with 
a brush. Heat the article over a coal fire, and wash the coating off. 
Repeat this operation until the desired brown color is obtained. By 
adding blue vitriol to the mixture, a chestnut brown color is produced, 
while an addition of borax gives a yellowish shade. 

Gold Bronze for Iron. Dissolve three ounces of finely powdered 
shellac \x\ \% pints of spirit of wine. Filter the varnish through linen 
and rub a sufficient quantity of Dutch gold with the the filtrate to give a 
lustrous color to it. The iron, previously polished and heated, is brushed 
over with vinegar and the color applied with a brush. When dry the 
article may be coated with copal lacquer to which some amber lacquer 
has been added. 

Gold Tinge to Silver. A bright gold tinge may be given to silver 
by steeping it for a suitable length of time in a weak solution of sul- 
phuric acid and water, strongly impregnated with iron rust. 

Gold-Yellow Color on Brass. A gold like appearance may be 
given to brass by the use of a fluid prepared by boiling for about 15 
minutes, 4 parts caustic soda, 4 parts milk sugar, and 100 parts of water, 
after which 4 parts concentrated solution of sulphate of copper is added 
with constant stirring. The mixture is then cooled to 79° C, and the 



155 Electro-Plating, Etc. 

previously well cleaned articles are for a short time laid into it. When 
left in it for some time they will first assume a blueish and then a rain- 
bow color. 

Gray Stain for Brass. Many black and gray pickles possess the 
defect that tliey give different colors with different copper alloys, while 
in the case of certain alloys they refuse to act altogether. For instance, 
carbonate of copper, dissolved in ammonia, gives to brass a handsome, 
dark-gray color, while it does not whatever attack various other alloys; 
therefore it is little suitable for instruments. A dark-gray pickle, which 
almost indiscriminately stains all copper alloys a handsome gray, resem- 
bling in color the costly platinum, is composed by dissolving 50 grams 
arsenic in 250 grams hydrochloric acid, and adding to the solution 
35 grams chloride of antimony and 35 grams finely pulverized 
hammer scales. The articles to be pickled are rinsed in a weak, 
warm soda solution, prior to as well as after immersion, to be followed 
'by continued rinsing in water. The recipe is simple, and has been 
repeatedly tested with uniformly good results. 

Green Bronze for Brass. Add to a solution of 8 ^ drachms of cop- 
per in one ounce of strong nitric acid, io|^ fluid ounces of vinegar, 3^ 
drachms of sal-ammoniac, and 6 ^ drachms of aqua-ammonia. Put the 
liquid in a loosely corked bottle, and allow it to stand in a warm place 
for a few days, when it may be used. After applying it to the articles, 
dry them by exposure to heat, and when dry, apply a coat of linseed oil 
varnish, which is also dried by heat. 

Imitation of Antique Silver. The article is dipped in a bath of 
water containing about 10 per cent of sulphide of ammonium, and then 
scratch brushed with a brush made of glass threads or bristles. When 
afterwards burnished with an agate tool its surface becomes a beautiful 
dark brown color. 

Oxidizing Silver, i. Place the silver or plated articles in a solution 
of liver of sulphur diluted with spirit of sal-ammoniac. They are then 
taken out, washed, dried and polished. This produces a blue-black tint, 
while a solution of equal quantities of sal-ammoniac and blue vitrol in 
vinegar gives a brown shade. 

2. Sal-ammoniac, 2 parts; sulphate of copper, 2 parts; saltpeter, i 
part. Reduce these ingredients to a fine powder, and dissolve in a little 
acetic acid. If the article is to be entirely oxidized, it may be dipped for 
a short time in the boiling mixture ; if only in parts, it may be applied 
with a camel-hair pencil, the article and the mixture both being warmed 
before using. 



Electro-Plating, Etc. 156 

3. There are two distinct shades in use, one produced by chloride^ 
which has a brownish tint, and the other by sulphur, which has a bluish- 
black tint. To produce the former it is only necessary to work the 
article with a solution of sal-ammoniac; a much more beautiful tint, 
however, may be obtained by employing a solution composed of equal 
parts of sulphate of copper and sal-ammoniac in vinegar. The fine 
black tint may be produced by a slightly warm solution of sulphate of 
potassium or sodium. 

Silvering for Copper or Brass. Mix i part of chloride of silver 
with 3 parts of pearl ash, i^ parts common salt, and one part whiting; 
and well rub the mixture on the surface of brass or copper (previously 
well cleaned), by means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened 
with water and dipped in the powder. When properly silvered, the 
metal should be well washed in hot water, slightly alkalized, then wiped 
dry. 

2. Mix three parts of chloride of silver with 20 parts finely pulverized 
cream tartar, and 15 parts culinary salt. Add water in sufficient quan- 
tity, and stir until the inixture forms a paste, with which cover the sur- 
face to be silvered by means of blotting paper. The surface is then 
rubbed with a rag and powdered lime, washed, and rubbed with a piece 
of soft cloth. The deposited film is extremely thin. 

Silvering Small Iron Articles. The small iron articles are sus- 
pended in dilute sulphuric acid until the iron shows a bright clean sur- 
face. After rinsing in pure water, they are placed in a bath of mixed 
solution of sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper, and cyanide of potassium^ 
and there remain until they receive a bright coating of brass. Lastly 
they are transferred to a bath of nitrate of silver, cyanide of potassium, 
and sulphate of soda, in which they quickly receive a coating of silver. 

Silver Plating Without a Battery, i. The process consists in 
exposing the article, which has previously been well cleansed with a 
potash solution and dilute hydrochloric acid, to the operation of a silver 
bath, which is prepared in the following manner: Form a solution of 
32 grams (i oz., 13.8 grains) nitrate of silver, 20 grams silver (12 dwts., 
20.6 grains) in 60 ( i oz., 18 dwts., 13.9 grains) grams nitric acid. The 
silver is precipitated as silver oxide with a solution of 20 grams solid caus- 
tic potash in 50 grams (i oz., li dwts., 3.6 grains) distilled water, care- 
fully washed, and the precipitate taken up by a solution of 100 grams (3 
oz., 4 dwts., 7.2 grains) cyanide of potassium in 500 grams distilled water. 
The fluid, distilled through paper, is finally diluted with distilled water 
to 2 liters (4^^ pints). The thus prepared silver bath is gently warmed 
in the water bath, and the article to be silver plated laid in it and kept in 
motion for a few minutes, and after taking out it is dried in sawdust, 
and then polished with Vienna chalk for giving luster. 



157 Emery. 

2. For rapid silver plating, prepare a powder of 3 parts of chloride of 
silver, 20 parts carefully pulverized cream of tartar, and 15 parts pul- 
verized cooking salt; mix it into a thin paste with water, and rub it upon 
the well cleaned metallic surface with blotting paper. After you are 
certain that all parts of the article have been touched alike, rub it with 
very fine chalk or dust upon wadding or other soft cloth. Wash with 
clean water and dry with a cloth. 

3. Dissolve I oz nitrate of silver, in crystals, in 12 ozs., soft water; 
then dissolve in the water 2 ozs. cyanide of potash, shake the whole 
together, and let it stand until it becomes clear. Have ready some half- 
ounce vials, and fill half full with Paris white, or fine whiting, and then 
fill up the bottles with the liquid, and it is ready for use. The whiting 
does not increase the coating power, it only helps to clean the article, 
and save the silver fluid. 

4. Make a solution of 4 ounces lunar caustic (equal to a solution 2^ 
ounces silver in 7_^ ounces nitric acid); the silver of this solution is pre- 
cipitated as an oxide of silver by the addition of a solution of 2^ ounces 
of caustic potash in 6^ ounces distilled water; and the precipitate, after 
being washed, is added to a solution of 12^ ounces of cyanide of pot- 
assium in one quart of water. This solution is then filtered and water 
added to bring it to 4 quarts. In this solution, which is heated on the 
water bath, the pieces to be silvered are left for a few minutes. Being 
agitated, they are taken out, and put to dry in fine sawdust and then 
polished. 

Steel-Blue on Brass. Dissolve i^ drachms of antimony sulphide 
and 2 ounces calcined soda in ^ pint of water. Add 2^^ drachms of 
kermes, filter, and mix this solution with another of 2^ drachms of 
tartar, 5^^ drachms of sodium hyposulphite and ^ pint of water. Pol- 
ished sheet brass placed in the warm mixture assumes a beautiful steel- 
blue. 

To Give Copper a Durable Luster. Place the copper articles in a 
boiling solution of tartar and water for fifteen ininutes. Remove, rinse 
off with cold water and dry. ' 

ELLICOTT, JOHN. A celebrated London clockmaker. He was 
born in 1700, was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1738, and 
published a work on pendulums in 1751. He invented a coinpensation 
pendulum in 1753, in which the bob rested on the longer ends of two 
levers, of which the shorter ends are depressed by the superior expansion 
of a brass bar attached to the pendulum rod. The invention, however 
has not proved of any practical value. He died in 1772. 

EMERY. The dark colored and non-transparent variety of corun- 
dum. See Corundum. 



End Stone. 



158 



Emery Countersinks. See Countersinks. 

Emery Files, Pencils and Sticks. Emerj files are to be had ready 
made from all material dealers and consist of wooden handles to which 
emery cloth is glued. Emery pencils are kept by some dealers and will 
be found very useful for grinding the inside of metal objects, and also 
on small work of various kinds, being easy to handle, clean and light. 
Emery sticks are of two kinds, solid square sticks and round and square 
sticks of wood to which emery paper or cloth is glued. Emery paper 
and cloth may be had from most material dealers, varying from oooo to 
No. 4. 

Emery Wheels. Wheels of solid emery or wooden wheels, to the 
surface of which emery paste has been applied. The best wheels 
for watchmakers' use are the solid wheels in which vulcanite is the 
cementing medium. They may be had from material dealers generally 
or from dental supply houses, in sizes varying from %,yiyi in. to 3>^x^ 
in. A set of three or more of these wheels will prove very valuable 




Fig. 126. 

adjuncts to the watchmaker's bench for grinding dials to allow freedom 
of motion for wheels in fitting new dials; for grinding milling cutters, 
drills, gravers, etc. As purchased from dealers these wheels have a 
central hole, by means of which they can be mounted for use by the 
watchmaker as follows ; Turn down a piece of No. 30, Stubbs' steel wire, 
to the size of the opening in your wheel and rivet your wheel firmly 
upon it, as shown in Fig. 126. It can then be used in your lathe very 
handily, either with or without water. The best sizes for watchmakers 
use are ^ in., i in. and \%. in. diameter. 

END STONE. The small stone disc on which a watch pivot rests, 
applied principally to escapement and balance pivots. Jewels with end 
stones are known as capped jewels. 

ENGINE TURNING. The wavy, curved lines used as decorations 
for watch cases. See Rose Engine. 



ENGRAVING BLOCKS. A mechanical device for holding coins, 
jewelry, silverware, etc., while engraving. Fig. 127 is the usual form 



159 



Epicycloid. 



given to engraving blocks and is known as the flat base variety. Fig. 
128 has v^hat is known as the cannon-ball base, but the holding devices 
are similar to the flat base. Various attachments are furnished for hold- 
ing rings, spoons, coins, etc. 

EPICYCLOID. A curve generated by a point in the circumference 
of a movable circle, as it rolls upon another circle. The teeth of driving, 
wheels are usually of this form. 




Fig. 127. 



Fig. 128. 



EQUATION OF TIME. The difference between mean and 
apparent, or solar, time. 



ESCAPEMENT. The mechanical device in a watch or clock 
by which the motion of the train is controlled so that the power 
may be distributed uniformly. Saunier divides escapements into three 
principal classes: Recoil, Dead Beat and Detached, i. Recoil escape- 
ments are so classed, because at a certain period of this action, the wheel 
moves backward or recoils in a manner more or less marked. The 
verge escapement in watches and certain forms of the anchor in clocks,, 
may be used as examples. 

2. Dead Beat escapements are so called because except during the 
actual impulsion, the wheel remains stationary, a point being supported 
either against the axis of the balance itself, or against the accessory piece, 
concentric with this axis, which catches it in its movement of rotation. 
The cylinder and duplex escapements in watches and the pin and Graham. 
escapements in clocks are examples of this class. 



Escape Pinion. 160 

3. Detached escapements may be called Dead Beat escapements, but 
their principal characteristic consists in the fact that the balance per- 
forms its vibration in absolute independence of the wheel, except during 
the very brief periods of impulse and unlocking. The wheel, then, does 
not rest on the axis of the balance, but on an intermediate and distinct 
piece. The lever escapement in watches, the detent escapement in 
chronometers, as well as several forms of escapements employed in 
clocks, come under this head. See Anchor^ Chronometer^ Cylinder^ Dead 
Beat^ Duplex^ Graham^ Pin Pallet^ Pin Wheel and Verge. 

ESCAPE PINION. The pinion on the escape wheel staff. 

ESCAPING ARC. Twice the angular distance a pendulum has to 
be moved from its point of rest, in order to allow a tooth of the escape 
wheel to pass from one pallet to another. 

EYE GLASS. Eye glasses for watchmaker's use are mounted in 
many different styles. Some have horn, others have vulcanite and still 
others cork mountings. The vulcanite mounted glass with a light spring 
attached to sustain it in place is very popular with ^^^^^^ 
apprentices. The Clark patent glass, shown in Fig. 129, ^BH^P 
is becoming very popular in this country. It is provided VH^m 

with an annular reflector, with a central opening and «fl^|B 
corrugations, and so seated in the outer end of the glass -'"-"""--■- 

as to reflect the rays of light falling on the outside of it ^^m^. .^^ 

in front of the glass, and concentrating them upon the '^"^"^*^'" ' 

object being viewed. It is especially useful in examin- ^^^' ^^^' 

ing the inside of watches, as it often occurs that it is difficult to get 
light sufficient to do so. 

FACIO, NICHOLAS. A native of Geneva, who discovered the art 
of piercing holes in rubies, garnets and other stones. He first went to 
Paris and from there, in 1700, went to London, and there with the brothers 
Peter and Jacob de Beaufre carried on the business of 
watch jewelling. A patent on his process of piercing 
jewels was granted to him in England in May, 1704. 




FERGUSON, JAMES. A celebrated astronomer 
and mechanician. He was born in the year 17 10, a few 
miles from Keith, a little village in Banffshire, in the 
north of Scotland. Ferguson can hardly be classed 
among horologists, although he made many improve- 
James Ferguson, ^gnts in the clocks of his day and many inventions in 
this line. In the year 1750 Ferguson invented and made his celebrated 
machine, known as the "Mechanical Paradox." This curious machine 



161 



Ferrule. 



Avas made for the purpose of silencing a London watchmaker who did 
not believe in the doctrine of the Trinity. The paradox, which is 
illustrated in Fig. 131, is described by Ferguson as follows: "A is called 
the immovable plate, because it lies on a table whilst the machine is at 




Fig. 131. 

work; B C is a moveable frame to be turned round an upright axis a 
(fixt in the centre of the immoveable plate) by taking hold of the nob u. 

On the said axis is fixt the immoveable 
wheel D whose teeth take into the teeth 
of the thick moveable wheel E, and turns 
it round its own axis as the frame is turned 
round the fixt axis of the immoveable wheel 
D and in the same direction that the frame 
is moved. The teeth of the thick wheel E 
take equally deep into the teeth of the 
three wheels, F, G and H, but operate on 
these wheels in such a manner, that whilst 
the frame is turned round, the wheel H 
turns iJie same nay that the wheel E does, 
the wheel G turns the contrary %vay, and 
the wheel F no xioy at all.''^ Fig. 132 
illustrates what Ferguson termed "a one- 
wheeled clock." The drawing he made in 
1774 and there was no description accom- 
panying it, simply these few words : " The 
number of wheels in a clock reduced to 
one, by means of a double 'scapement." 
This is a problem for the ingenious watch 
or clock maker to solve. James Ferguson 
died Nov. 16, 1776. 

FERRULE. The small pulley or wheel around which the string of 
a bow is wound when giving motion to a piece of work. See also Collet. 




Fig. 132. 



Files. 



162 



FETIL, PIERRE. A noted French Watchmaker, born at Nantes 
in 1753, and died at Orleans Maj 18, 1814. 

FILES. Files for watchmakers' use are made in every conceivable 
shape, and in sizes from that of a fine cambric needle to i x }^ in. The 
various styles are known as flat, pillar, joint, three-cornered, knife, round, 
half round, oval, square, smooth cut, barrette, warding, conical, slitting, 
pivot, ratchet, screwhead, escapement, etc. Escapement files are usually 
put up in sets of twelve assorted shapes. The average American has a 
tendency to be extravagant, and in no trade or calling is this extra- 
vagance better exeinplified than in that of the watchmaker and particu- 
larly in the matter of files. Many watchmakers' benches will be found, 
in the drawers of which, from one to two dozen files will be found, and 
outof all that number, not to exceed six will be in anything like respec- 
table shape for good work. This is not occasioned by the poor quality 
of the goods used in this country, because eight out of every ten files 
used by watchmakers are of French, Swiss or English manufacture, and 
cost the American more money than his European brother, but rather 
from a careless handling of these tools, from a want of training. The 
skilled European watchmaker serves a long apprenticeship to a master 
who insists that he first becomes proficient in the use of the file, then 
the graver, etc , before he is allowed to work upon a clock or watch. In 
this way he acquires a proficency in the use of tools which the average 
young American watchmaker is a stranger to. The American watch- 
maker will employ a new file upon steel work, whereas, the European 
first employs a new file in working brass or copper and even then 
handles it very carefully. He would no more think of using a new file 
upon steel work than he would of flying. A new file, if carefully used, 
and gradually advanced from a soft to a hard metal, will at the end of 
six months, be a much better file for steel work than a new one, and will 
last four times as long. When the surface of a file becomes chocked 
with particles of steel, iron or brass, Saunier advises that it be cleaned as 
follows: Place the file for a few seconds in hot potash and water, and on 
withdrawal, dry it before the fire and brush the surface with a stifle brush. 
If the file has a tendency to fill up, slightly oil the surface by means of 
a linen rag. 

FILING BLOCK. A contrivance made to take the place of the 




Fig. 133. 
filing rest, which was made of boxwood or bone. It consists of a cvlinder 




163 Filing Fixture. 

of hardened steel rivetted upon a staff which in turn enters a split socket. 
The surface of the steel cylinder is grooved with various sizes of grooves 
for the different sizes of wire, or to suit any work, as shown in Fig. 133. 
The cylinder is revolved until the desired size groove is brought upper- 
most, when the split socket is placed between the jaws of a vise, and the 
vice closed, thus holding the cylinder in the desired position. Fig. 133 
illustrates Mr. Ide's patent block which is well made and of superior 
material. 

FILING FIXTURE OR REST. These rests will be found very 
convenient in squaring winding arbors, center squares, etc. There are 
several makes of these tools, but they are all built upon the same prin- 
ciple, that of two hardened steel rollers on which the 
file rests, and Fig. 134 is a fair example. One pattern 
is made to fit in the hand rest after the T is removed, 
while the other is attached to the bed of the lathe in 
the same manner as the slide rest. The piece to be 
squared is held in the split or spring chuck in the 
lathe, and the index on the pulley is used to divide 
Fig. i3i. the square correctly. Any article can be filed to a 

perfect square, hexagon or octagon as may be desired. The arm carry- 
ing the rollers can be raised or lowered as required for adjustment to 
work of various sizes. 

FLUX. A mixture or compound to promote the fusion of metals; 
used in assaying, refining and soldering, as alkalies, borax, etc. 

FLY OR FAN. A fan having two blades, used for preserving the 
uniformity of motion, as in music-boxes and the striking mechanism of 
clocks. The resistance of the air on the fan blades prevents the train 
from accelerating. 

FOLLOWER. Where two wheels are toothed together the one that 
imparts the power is known as the driver, and the one receiving the 
power is called the follower. 

FOOT WHEEL. In the selection of a foot wheel the workman 
must be governed by his own experience and taste, for, like cigars, the 
variety that exactly suits one person is very distasteful to another. 
Some workman prefer a treadle having a heel and toe motion, while 
others prefer a swing treadle like that shown in Fig. 135. 

FOURTH WHEEL. The wheel that imparts motion to the escape 
pinion, the second hand being attached to the wheel. 

FRICTION. The resistance which a moving body meets with from 
the surface of the body on which it moves; is caused by the unevenness 



Frictional Escapements. 



164 



of the surfaces, combined with some other causes, such as natural 
attraction, magnetism, etc. It varies as does the weight or pressure 
applied and is independent of surfaces in contact, but if the surfaces are 
disproportionate to the pressure, rapid abrasion will be the result, which 
in its turn produces uneven surfaces and tends to increase the friction. 

In order to prevent the abrasion of 
the surface a lubricant is applied, 
either in the shape of oil or plumba- 
go which, spreading itself over the 
surfaces of the bodies, interposes a 
film between the two acting surfaces, 
and this film, especially in light 
bodies, has a greater retarding influ- 
ence than mere friction itself In 
such cases the acting surfaces are 
made very minute, as in balance 
staff pivots, etc. In these pivots the 
resistance arising from the lubricant 
is usually greater than that of the 
friction proper, and it graduUy in- 
creases as the lubricant becomes 
viscid. For this reason plumbago is 
advocated as a lubricant in large 
machines, as it does not become 
viscid and is an excellent lubricant. 
It is not applicable, however, for 
watch or clock work. From the 
Fig. 135. above it is apparent that a light 

bodied or thin lubricant is desirable on small bearings, such as 
balance pivots, while as the barrel or power is approached and larger 
surfaces used the lubricant should be of a heavier body, or thicker. The 
nearer that a revolving surface is to its center of motion the less the 
friction. It is therefore essential where extra surface is desired that the 
surfaces be increased in lengthy and that the diameter of a pivot be not 
increased for if the diameter be doubled the resistance is doubled, as the 
acting surface is twice the distance from the center of motion. 




FRICTIONAL ESCAPEMENTS. Those escapements in which 
the balance is never free or detached from the escapement. In contra- 
distinction to the detached escapement. The duplex, cylinder or verge 
are examples of frictional escapements. 



FRODSHAM, CHARLES. A skillful and successful watchmaker 
of London and the author of several valuable works on watchmaking. 
He was born in 1810 and died in 1871. 



165 Frosting* 

FROSTING. The matted or rough surface sometimes given to 
work before gilding or silvering. See Electro- Platings Bronzing and 
Staining. The gray surface produced on steel work of watches is also 
known as frosting, though more commonly called graying. 

FULL PLATE. A term applied to movements having a full top 
plate and the balance above the plate. 

FUZEE. A brass cone, as shown in Figure 136, having a spiral 
groove cut on it to hold the chain, and interposed between the barrel 
and center pinion of a watch for the purpose of equalizing the pull of 
the mainspring and converting it into a constant pressure at the center 
of the pinion, for the pull of the mainspring is greater when wound 
around the barrel arbor than when it has expanded to the circumference 




Fig. 136. 

of the barrel. The principle of its construction is that by winding the 
fusee chain upon its cone the mainspring is wound, and the greatest 
pull comes upon the smaller end of the cone, and as the pull becomes 
less by the unwinding of the mainspring, the leverage (by means of 
the chain unwinding from a smaller to a larger cone) increases, and the 
rate of its increase constitutes a perfect adjustment of the mainspring. 
The fuzee chain was first introduced by Gruet of Geneva in 1664. The 
fuzee is held in great esteem by English watchmakers, and possesses 
many excellent points, although not employed in any American-made 
watch. 

Repairing Watch Fuzee Top Pivot. First file up and re-polish the 
square, taking off the corners sufficiently to prevent them standing 
above the pivot when it is repolished. Put the square into an eccentric 
arbor and get the fuzee quite true. Now put a screw ferrule on to the 
fuzee back arbor, and place the whole piece in the turns with the 
eccentric in front, using the bow on the ferrule at the back. If the 
pivot is much cut it should be turned slightly with the point of the 
graver. Polish first with steel and coarse stuff, afterwards with bell- 
metal and fine stuff, and finish with the glossing burnisher. 

To Put in a Watch Fuzee Top Hole. Put the pillar plate in the 
mandrel and peg the bottom hole true, then turn out the top hole to the 
required size for stopping. The stopping (a hollow one) should be small, 



Galileo. 



166 



and no longer than just sufficient to form the rivet. If there be danger 
of bending the plate, the stopping should be softened slightly (the 
hammering will re-harden it), and the ends turned hollow to facilitate the 
riveting. The top hole is now to be turned to nearly right size for the 
pivot, testing it frequently for truth with the peg, as much broaching is 
■especially to be avoided. In finishing the stopping use polished cutters, 
take off the corners of the hole, and polish the cup or chamfer for the 
oil with the peg and redstuff. The same procedure is to be followed 
■with ^-plate fuzee, and it will be found best to finish the stopping in 
fuzee piece before screwing the steel on to the brass. Be careful to give 
the fuzee but little end shake; if it be at all excessive the stop work and 
the maintaining work will become uncertain, and either or both may fail 



GALILEO. A celebrated mathematician, born 1564, who discovered 
the use of the pendulum about the close of the sixteenth century. It 




Fig. 137. 
is related that he was studying medicine and philosophy, when one 
morning he was in church and saw a lamp which was suspended by a 



167 



Gas Heater. 



silken cord from the ceiling, swinging to and fro after having been 
carelessly struck by one of the attendants. He noticed the regularity 
of the swing, comparing it with his pulse, and concluded that, by 
reason of its regularity, a simple pendulum might become a valuable 
agent in the measurement of time. In 1639, he published a treatise 
on the use of the pendulum in clocks, but there is no record of his 
having made one. The credit of actually putting a pendulum in a clock 
has been claimed for Richard Harris, of London, 1641 ; Vincent 
Galileo, son of the philosopher, 1649; and Huyghens, 1657. The weight 
of the evidence seems to be in favor of Huyghens as being the first to 
apply the Galilean theory in practice, but it is beyond dispute that the 
invention of the pendulum belongs to Galileo. 



GAS HEATER. This heater, shown in Fig. 138, is to take the place 
of a forge in heating and tempering small articles. With a full 
pressure of gas, a piece of steel half an inch in diameter 
can be heated sufficiently to harden in about six minutes. 
It does not heat to a degree that will injure the quality of 
steel ; which makes it very valuable for heating small pieces. 
Watchmakers will find in its use great convenience as well 
as economy of time and fuel ; and also, that tools heated by 
it will be tougher than when heated in a forge in the usual 
-way. 

Put on sufficient gas to prevent the flame from descend- 
ing into the tube. For heating larger pieces the flame 
should be nearly three inches wide. The upper ends of the 
curved side pieces should not be more than one-quarter of 
an inch apart. The article to be heated should be held in 
the upper part of the flame above the central blue part 
and parallel with it. The larger the piece to be heated the 
further it should extend into the flame. The heater should 
be located in a dark place, and supports may be provided 
for greater convenience in heating heavy articles. 




Fig. 138. 



GAUGE. An instrument for determining dimensions or capacity. 
The watchmaker cannot be too careful in the selection of his measuring 
instruments, as accuracy and perfection in watchmaking are essential 
elements to success. Accuracy is more essential than finish, though 
both are desirable; still a movement that is accurate may be a fine time- 
keeper, although it may be lacking in finish and not artistic to look 
upon. Measuring instruments of all kinds should be handled with 
care, and in the more delicate ones cleanliness also plays an important 
part. You cannot expect accurate results from a fine Vernier caliper 
"that is recklessly thrown into a heap of other tools upon the bench. It 
should be carefully handled, and when you are through using it you 



Gauge. 



168 



should carefully wipe it and place it in some drawer in your bench^ 
where it will not be mutilated by being jammed against other tools. 

Douzieme. A measuring tool having two limbs hinged together 
similar to a pair of scissors. One of the limbs terminates in a pointer 
that indicates -upon a scale the extent to which the jaws are opened. 
The true Douzieme gauge has a scale divided into twelfths, though some 
patterns are now made that have a scale divided into tenths and 
hundreds of an inch, and again there are others that measure the frac- 
tions of a millimeter. This tool is useful for taking measurements of 




Fig. 139. 
all kinds. For example, we will suppose that the watchmaker is putting- 
in a new balance staff; we will take it for granted that the upper part of 
the staff is entirely finished and that he is ready to find the total length 
that the staff should be. He takes the top plate with the balance cock 
and potance attached, and measures the distance from the top of the cock 
hole jewel to top of potance hole jewel by means of this gauge. He 
places the jaw a on potance jewel and b on cock jewel, and notes the 
number on the scale that the pointer is opposite, which is generally 30 
for an 18 inch size full plate American movement. 



169 



Gauge. 



Micrometer Caliper. Fig. 140 is a full size cut of the Brown & Sharp 
Mfg. Co.'s micrometer caliper. It measures from one-thousandth of an 
inch to one-half inch. It is graduated to read to thousandths of an 
inch, but one-half and one-quarter thousandths are readily estimated. 
This instrument is also graduated to the hundredths of a millimeter, 
but when so graduated the table of decimal equivalents is omitted. 
Thej are also made to read to ten-thousandths of an inch. The edges 
of the measuring surfaces are not beveled, but are left square, as it is 
more convenient for measuring certain classes of work. It will gauge 
under a shoulder or measure a small projection on a plain surface. 




Fig. 140. 



Watchmakers will especially appreciate micrometers of this form. This 
tool will be found very useful for gauging mainsprings, pinions, etc. 
In the caliper, shown by cut, the gauge or measuring screw is cut on the 
concealed part of the spindle C, and moves in the thread tapped in the 
hub A; the hollow sleeve or thimble D is attached to the spindle C 
and covers and protects the gauge screw. By turning the thimble, the 
screw is drawn back and the caliper opened. 

The pitch of the screw is 40 to the inch. The graduation of the hub 
A, in a line parallel to the axis of the screw, is 40 to the inch, and is 
figured o, 1, 2, etc., every fourth division. As the graduation conforms 
to the pitch of the screw, each division equals the longitudinal distance 
traversed by the screw in one complete rotation, and shows that the 
caliper has been opened i-4oth or .025 of an inch. The beveled edge of 
the thimble D is graduated into 25 parts, and figured every fifth division 
o, 5, 10, 15, 20. Each division, when passing the line of graduation on 
hub A, indicates that the screw has made i-25th of a turn, and the open- 
ing of the caliper increased i-25th of i-40th, or a thousandth of an inch. 

Hence, to read the caliper, multiply the number of divisions visible 
on the scale of the hub by 25, and add the number of divisions on the 
scale of the thimble, from zero to the line coincident with the line oC 
graduations on hub. For example: As the caliper is set in the cut, 
there are three whole divisions visible on the hub. Multiply this number 
by 25, and add the number of divisions registered on the scale of the 
thimble, which is o in this case, the result is seventy-five thousandths of 
an inch. (3x25 = 754-0=75). These calculations are readily made mentally^ 



Gauge. 170 

Differences between Wire Gauges in Decimal Parts of an Inch. 







O 


Moen 

■ing 

sler, 


c" 




c 


H4 * 




u 

>M be 
3 

do 


rt C « 


B 
br- 

BB 




g2 
c o • 




2MJ 


u 

d 


Z 


< 


eq 


^ 


h 


% 





;5 


000000 






.46 








000000 


00000 




«■ • - 


.43 


.45""" 


. _-. 




00000 


0000 


m" 


.454 


.393 


.4 


.4 




0000 


000 


.40964 


.425 


.362 


.36 


.372 




000 


00 


.3648 


.38 


.331 


.33 


.348 




00 





.32495 


.34 


.307 


.305 


.324 







1 


.2893 


.3 


.283 


.285 


.3 




1 


2 


.25763 


.284 


.263 


.265 


.276 




2 


3 


.22942 


.259 


.244 


.245 


.253 




3 


4 


.20431 


.238 


.225 


.225 


.232 




4 


5 


.18194 


.22 


.207 


.205 


.212 




5 


6 


.16202 


.203 


.192 


.19 


.192 




6 


7 


.14428 


.18 


.177 


.175 


.176 




7 


8 


.12849 


.165 


.163 


.16 


.16 




8 


9 


.11443 


.148 


.148 


.145 


.144 


• . _ • 


9 


10 


.10189 


.134 


.135 


.13 


.128 




10 


11 


.090742 


.13 


.12 


.1175 


.116 




11 


12 


.080808 


.109 


.105 


.105 


.104 




12 


13 


.071961 


.095 


.092 


.0925 


.092 




13 


14 


.064084 


.083 


.08 


.08 


.08 


.083" 


14 


15 


.057068 


.072 


.072 


.07 


.072 


.072 


15 


16 


.05082 


.065 


.063 


.061 


.064 


.065 


16 


17 


.045257 


.058 


.054 


.0525 


.056 


.058 


17 


18 


.040303 


.049 


.047 


.045 


.048 


.049 


18 


19 


.03539 


.042 


.041 


.039 


.04 


.04 


19 


20 


.031961 


.035 


.035 


.034 


.036 


.035 


20 


21 


.028462 


.032 


.0;j2 


.03 


.032 


.0315 


21 


22 


.025347 


.028 


.028 


.27 


.028 


.0295 


22 


23 


.022571 


.025 


.025 


.024 


.0iJ4 


.037 


23 


24 


.0201 


.022 


.023 


.0215 


.022 


.025 


24 


25 


.0179 


.02 


.02 


.019 


.02 


.023 


25 


26 


.01594 


.018 


.018 


.018 


.018 


.0205 


26 


27 


.014195 


.016 


.017 


.017 


.0164 


.01875 


27 


28 


.012641 


.014 


.016 


.016 


.0148 


.0165 


28 


29 


.011257 


.013 


.015 


.015 


.0136 


.0155 


29 


3U 


.010025 


.012 


.014 


.014 


.0124 


.01375 


80 


31 


.008928 


.01 


.0135 


.013 


.0116 


.01235 


31 


32 


.00795 


.009 


.013 


.012 


.0108 


.01125 


32 


33 


.00708 


.008 


.Oil 


.011 


.01 


.01025 


33 


34 


.006304 


.007 


.01 


.01 


.0092 


.0095 


34 


35 


.005614 


.005 


.0095 


.009 


.0084 


.009 


35 


36 


.005 


.004 


.009 


.008 


.0076 


.0075 


36 


37 


.004453 




.0085 


.00725 


.0068 


.0065 


37 


38 


.003965 




.008 


.0065 


.006 


.00575 


38 


39 


.003531 




.0075 


.00575 


.0052 


.005 


39 


40 


.003144 


— 


.007 


.005 


.0048 


.0045 


40 



171 



Gauge, 



Pinion and Wire Gauge. The jewelers' gauge shown in Fig. 141, 
^will be found very useful in measuring pinions, wire or flat metal. The 



DECIMALS EQUALING PARTS OF AN INCH. 




Fig. 141. 



^V = .0156 
= .0312 
= .0468 
= .0625 
= .0781 
= .0937 
= .1093 
= .1250 
= .1406 
= .1562 



I 

¥^ 

-h 
_1_ 

1 6 

5 
6T 

3 

J7 
6¥ 

1 

8 
_9 
6i- 

6 
¥2 



1 1 
6¥ 
3 

il- 
ls 

7 

3^ 
1 5 
6T 



i = 



9 
■3? 
1 9 



.1718 
.1875 
.2031 
.2187 
.2343 
.2500 
.2656 
.2812 
.2968 
.3125 




Fig. 142. 
'slot is graduated to thousandths of an inch. If in measuring a pinion 
it passes down the slot to number 70, then the pinion is y^^^j of an 
inch in diameter. 



Gauge. 



172 



Registering Gauge. The registering gauges shown in the illustra- 
tions are two of the best examples of this class of tools. They are man- 
ufactured by A. J. Logan, Waltham, Mass., and are very accurate and 
nicely finished. Fig. 142 is an upright and jaw gauge, and Fig. 143 is 
designated as a jaw and depth gauge. They are both made to gauge 
one one-thousandth of a centimeter or one one-thousandth of an inch. 




Fig. 143. 

Fig. 143 shows the piece of work marked A, being gauged, while B rep- 
resents a stationary spindle to get the depth of a hole or recess or the 
thickness of any piece of work which will be indicated on the dial. 

Another form of registering gauge is shown in Fig. 144. It is an 
English gauge and but little used in this country. The principle of its 
construction however is good and any ingenious watchmaker can make 
it. The back of the dial is recessed and arranged as in Fig. 145. One 



173 



Gauge. 



limb is fixed ; the other is pivoted, and has a few rack teeth taking into 
a center pinion. The pinion carries the hand, which should make a 




Fig, 144. 

revolution in closing the calipers. The spiral spring attached to the 
pinion is to keep it and the hand banked in one direction for shake. 
The spring s is to keep the jaws open. The milled headed screw and 
the clamp c are to fix the jaws in case it is required to do so. A cover 
is snapped into the recess, and takes the back pivot of the pinion. 

Staff Gauge. The tool shown in Fig. 146, the invention of Mr. E. 
Beeton, is designed for measuring the height of the balance staff from 
the balance seat to the end of the top pivot. The illustration is enlarged 

to give more distinctness. 

E E' is a piece of curved steel" 
about gtjj of an inch thick, and y'^ of 
an inch wide. On the lower side 
from E' to the end the arm is filed 
down in width and thickness to 
correspond to an ordinary balance 
arm ; C is a slot in the upper arm ^, 
which allows A, ^, Z?, A' to be 
moved backward and forward. D D' 
is a round brass post drilled and 
tapped , the part D' has a thread cut 
on it, and the part shown in the slot 
C fits with easy friction. ^ is a lock- 
nut, drilled and tapped to fit the thread on D' . It is for the purpose of 
clamping D D' against the arm E. ^ ^' is a small steel screw with 
milled head, and is made to fit the tapped hole in Z> Z>'. 

Mr. Beeton describes his method of using this tool as follows: Take 
your measurement of the distance the balance seat is to be from the end of 
the top pivot., as follows: remove the end stone in balance cock, and 




Fig. 145. 



Gauge. 



174 



screw the cock on the top of the top plate, (i8-size full plate movement), 
then taking the plate in jour left hand, and tool (shown in Fig. 146) in 
your right, place H in position, so that the end of the screw A' rests on 
the jewel in the balance cock, and notice the position of the arm E' 
which corresponds to the balance arm, between the top plate and under 
side of balance cock. If the distance between the arm E' and end of 
screw A' is too great, the arm E' will be too low and touch the plate; if 
not enough, it will be too high and touch the regulator pins. Therefore, 
all that is necessary to do is to move the screw A A' up or down as the 




Fig. 146. 

case may be, sufficiently to ensure that the arm E' will assume the posi- 
tion the arm of the balance is to have. Take an i8-size balance with over- 
sprung hairspring, the arm is at the bottom of the rim ; in that case, when 
measuring, the screw A' is adjusted so as to bring the arm E' close ta 
the plate, when A' is resting on the balance jewel; if the balance is old 
style with undersprung hairspring, the balance arm is at top of rim, ia 
which case A is adjusted so that the arm E is close to the balance cock; 
if the balance arm is in the center of the rim, as in some English and 
Swiss balances, the screw A' is adjusted so that the arm E' is midway- 
between the plate and cock. 

The reason the part A^ B^D^ A\ is arranged to move laterally in slot 
C is, because all balance shoulders are not the same distance from the 
center, and where, in some cases, the screw A ' would be in a line with the 
center of the staff when the arm E' was resting on the balance seat, in 
other cases it would reach past the center, of course, short of it; and,, 
therefore, it is made adjustable to suit all cases. 



Staff Length Gauge. Another form of staff gauge, which is very 
simple, and which any watchmaker can manufacture is made as follows: 
Procure a small tube of steel, or make one from steel wire, thread it on 
the inside, and screw into each end a small steel plug as shown in Fig. 
147, until the ends of the plug meet, cut off the outer end of plugs so as 
to leave the total length that of a short staff; harden, draw to a blue, 
place in a split chuck, plugs and all, and turn a pivot of good length on 



175 



Gauge, 



each plug. Flatten the sides of the plugs at the base of the pivots, sa 
that they may be readily turned in or out by the aid of tweezers. By 

inserting this tool in the place of the bal- 
<^^^^ S^ -M¥¥^'^^^ ^"^^' ^"^ screwing the plugs to the right 



position, screwing bridge down, and 

^^9- liT- adjusting until the right endshake is 

obtained, you can ascertain in a moment the exact length that the staff 

should be over all, which can easily be transferred to calipers and thence 

to the new staff. 

Staff or Cylinder Height Gauge. The obvious advantage of this 
tool, which is shown at Fig. 148, is the automatic transfer of the meas- 
urement so that it may be readily applied to the work in hand. The tool, 
as the illustration shows, consists of a brass tube terminating in a cone- 
shaped piece. To the bottom of this cone is attached a disc through 
which a needle plays. Around the upper end 
of the tube is a collar upon which is fixed a 
curved steel index finger. A similar jaw, 
which is free to move, works in a slot in the 
tube. The movable jaw is tapped and is pro- 
pelled by a screw that terminates in the needle 
point. This tool is very useful in making the 
necessary measurements required in putting 
in a staff. To use it in this work, set the 
pivots of the g-auge through the foot hole, and 
upon the end-stone project the needle such a 
distance as you wish the shoulder to be formed 
above the point of the pivot. Next set the 
gauge in the foot hole as before, and elevate 
the disc to a height that shall be right for the 
roller, which is done by having the lever in Fig. 148. 

place, the little disc showing exactly where the roller should come. 
Finish the staff up to that point; then take the next measurement from 
the end-stone to where the shoulder should be, for the balance to rest 
upon. This point being marked, the staff can be reversed and measure- 
ments commenced from the upper end-stone, by which to finish the 
upper end of the staff. Distances between the shoulders for pinions and 
arbors can be obtained with the same facility, a little practice being 
the only requisite. 

Twist Drill and Steel Wire Gauge. This gauge, which is shown 
in Fig. 149 will be found very useful in determining the diameter of 
twist drills and steel wire, and is very accurately and nicely made. 

Vernier Caliper. Fig. 150 is an illustration of the Vernier Caliper^ 
a light, convenient and valuable instrument for obtaining correct 




Gauge. 



176 



measurements. The side represented in the illustration is graduated 
upon the bar to inches and fiftieths of an inch, and by the aid of a 
Vernier is read to the thousandths of an inch, (see description below). 
The opposite side is graduated to inches and sixty-fourths of an inch. 
The outside of the jaws are of suitable form for taking inside measure- 
ments, and when the jaws are closed, measure two hundred and fifty 
thousandths of an inch in diameter. 



10 



11 



12 



;lO O O O O'O o o o o o o 



E^ 13 

O ul 



14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 r- 

olO OOOOOOOOOOOOii 

\-^2& 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 :> 

I^O O Q O O O O'^O O O o o o o o Op 

^|;;42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 
■i0 0000000oooooo<»999 



^ I 



J 



Fig. 149. 

These instruments can be furnished with millimeters (in the place of 
sixty-fourths of an inch), and provided with a Vernier to read to one- 
fiftieth of a millimeter. 

On the bar of the instrument is a line of inches numbered i, 2, 3, each 
inch being divided into tenths, and each tenth into five parts, making 
fifty divisions to one inch. Upon the sliding jaw is a line of divisions, 
(called a Vernier, from the inventor's name), of twenty parts, figured o, 
5, 10, 15, 20. These twenty divisions on the Vernier correspond in 



iiihiiihiiiliiiiliiiiliiiihiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliii 

DarUng, Brown & STiArpe.Pronder.cG. R.I. 




Fig. 150. 



extreme length with nineteen parts, or nineteen-fiftieths on the bar, con- 
sequently each division on the Vernier is smaller than each division on 
the bar, bv one-thousandth of an inch. If the sliding jaw of the caliper 
is pushed up to the other, so that the line o on the Vernier corresponds 
with o on the bar, then the next two lines to the left will differ from each 
other one-thousandth of an inch, and so the difference will continue to 
increase one- thousandth of an incli for each division till they again cor- 
respond on the twentieth line on the Vernier. To read the distance the 



177 



Gerbert. 



caliper may be open, commence by noticing how many inches, tenths 
and parts of tenths the zero point on the Vernier has been moved from 
the zero point on the bar. Then count upon the Vernier the number of 
divisions until one is found which coincides with one on the bar, which 
will be the number of thousandths to be added to the distance read off 
on the bar. The best way of expressing the value of the divisions on 
the bar is to call the tenths one hundred thousandths (.100) and the fifths 
of tenths, or fiftieths, twenty thousandths (.020). Referring to the 
accompanying cut it will be seen that the jaws are open one-tenth of an 
inch, which is equal to one hundred thousandths (.100). Suppose now, 
the sliding jaw was moved to the left, so that the first line on the Ver- 
nier would coincide with the next line on the bar, this would then make 
twenty thousandths (.020) more to be added to one hundred thousandths 
(100), making the jaws then open one hundred and twenty thousandths 
(.120) of an inch. If but half the last described movement was made, the 
te7itk line on the Vernier would coincide with a line on the bar, and would 
then read, one hundred and ten thousandths (.110) of an inch. 

GERBERT. By some authorities accredited with the invention of 
the escapement and the application of the weight as a motive power for 
clocks. He was born in Belliac, in Auvergne, in 920 A. D. He was 
educated in a monastery, and served successively as Monk, Bishop, 
Archbishop and finally as Pope, being better known under the name of 
Sylvester H. He died May 12, 1003. 

GILDING. (See Electro-Plating) 

GIMBALS. A contrivance for securing free motion and suspension 
of a ship's chronometer, compass, etc., so that it may not be alTected 
by the motion of the ship. It is virtually a universal joint. It was 
invented by Cardan and first applied to timepieces by Huyghens. 

GODDARD, LUTHER. One of the earliest manufacturers of 
American watches. In 1809 he 
opened a small shop in Shrewsbury, 
Mass., and commenced to manu- 
facture watches of the verge pattern, 
as shown in Fig. 151, in somewhat 
larger quantities than had been 
attempted before. He could not 
compete in price, however, with the 
cheap foreign watches which were 
then being imported in large quan- 
tities, and accordingly he retired i-Vy. jji. 
from the business in 1817, having manufactured about 500 watches. 
This was the greatest number of watches ever made by any one manu- 
facturer in America up to this time. 




Going Barrel. 178 

GOING BARREL. A barrel having teeth around its circumference 
for driving the train. All American watches are of the going barrel 
type. 

GOING FUSEE. A fusee having the maintaining power attach- 
ment. All modern fusees have a maintaining power which drives the 
train while the fusee is being wound. Examples of old fusees are, how- 
ever, occasionally met with which have no maintaining power and the 
watch is stopped during the operation of winding. 

GOLD ALLOYS. (See Alloys.) 

To Distinguish Genuine from Spurious Gold. Genuine gold dis- 
solves in chlorine water and the solution has only a slightly yellowish 
color. Hence chlorine is a safe agent to distinguish genuine from spu- 
rious gold. To test the genuineness of gilt articles, rub a tiny drop of 
mercury on one corner of the surface to be examined; it will produce a 
white, silvery spot if the gold is pure, or if there is gold in the alloy. If 
this silvery spot does not appear there is no gold in the surface exposed. 
To prove the correctness of this result a drop of the solution of nitrate 
of mercury can be dropped on the surface, when a white spot will appear 
if the gold is counterfeit, while the surface will remain unaltered if the 
gold is genuine. After the operation, heating the article slightly will 
volatize the mercury and the spots will disappear. Pure gold can be 
distinguished from its alloys by a drop of chloride of gold or of nitrate 
of silver. If the gold is pure there will be no stain, but if mixed with 
other metals the chloride of gold will leave a brownish stain upon it and 
the nitrate of silver a gray stain. The simplest means of distinguishing 
genuine gold from a gold-like alloy consists in running the article to be 
tested against an ordinary flint until a lustrous metallic coloring 
remains upon the latter. Now hold a strongly sulphurated burning 
match against the coloring; if it disappears from the flint the article is 
not gold. 

GOLD SPRING. A very thin spring made of gold, attached to the 
detent of a chronometer escapement. See Chrono 
meter Escapement. 

GRAHAM, GEORGE. Born in Cumberland, 
England, in 1673 and died in 1751. He was buried in 
Westminister Abbey, He was the inventor of the 
mercurial pendulum (1715), the dead beat escapement 
for clocks, and is credited with being the inventor of 
George Graham. the cylinder escapement. 




179 Graham Escapement. 

GRAHAM ESCAPEMENT. A dead beat escapement, or one in 
which the escape wheel does not recoil. It was invented by George 
Graham early in the eighteenth century, and is used in regulators and 
fine clocks. For regulators and other clocks with seconds pendulum, 
says Britten, this escapement, which is shown in Fig. 153, is the one most 
generally approved. The only defect inherent in its construction is that 
the thickening of the oil on the pallet will affect the rate of the clock 
after it has been going some time. Notwithstanding this it has held its 
own against all other escapements on account of its simplicity and cer- 
tainty of action. The pallets of the Graham escapement were formerly 
made to embrace fifteen teeth of the wheel, and until recently ten, but 
now many escapements are made as shown in the drawing, with the 
pallets embracing but eight. This reduces the length of the impulse 
plane and the length of run on the dead face for a given arc of vibration, 
and consequently the relative effect of the thickening of the oil. The 
angle of impulse is kept small for the same reason. There is not much 
gained by making the pallet embrace a less number of teeth than eight, 
for the shake in the pivot holes and inaccuracies of work cannot be 
reduced in the same ratio, and are therefore greater in proportion. This 
involves larger angles and more drop. It is purely a practical question, 
and has been decided by the adoption of eight teeth as a good mean for 
regulators and fine clocks where the shakes are small. For large clocks 
of a rougher character, ten teeth is a good number for the pallets 
to embrace. 

TO SET OUT THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Draw a circle representing the escape wheel to any convenient size, 
and assuming the wheel to have 30 teeth and the pallets are to embrace 
eight of them, set off on each side of a centre line, by means of a pro- 
tractor, 45°. Lines drawn from the centre of the escape wheel through 
these points will pass through the center of impulse faces of the pallets; 
thus, 360 (number of degrees in the whole circle) divided by 30 (proposed 
number of teeth) = 12, which is the number of degrees between one 
tooth and the next. Between 8 teeth there are seven such places and 
12x7^ 84, and 84 + 6 (half of one space = 90), the number of degrees 
between the centers of the pallets. The proper position for the pallet 
stiff center will be indicated by the intersection of tangents to the wheel 
circle drawn from the centers of the pallets. But it happens that a tan- 
gent of 45° = the radius, and, therefore, the practical method adopted is 
to make the pallet arms from the staff hole to the center of impulse face 
equal to the radius of the escape wheel. If we take the radius of wheel 
to be == I, it will be found that with the pallet arms this length, the 
heisfht of the pallet staff hole from the center of the wheel will be 1.41, 
and the horizontal distance between the impulse faces of the pallets will 
be 1.41 also. 



Graham Escapement. 180 

The width of each pallet is equal to half the distance between one tooth 
and the next, less drop, which need not be much if the escape wheel 
teeth are made thin as they should be. The dead faces of the pallets are 
curves struck from the pallet staff hole. The escaping arc, which equals 
2°, is divided into ii° of impulse and i° of rest; 1^° of impulse is quite 
enough if the encapement is properly made, and if increased beyond 2°, 




Fig. 153*. 

it will be at the cost of the time keeping properties of the clock, from 
the effect of the thicking of the oil already referred to. 

From the center of the wheel set off two radial lines barely 3° on each 
sides of the radial lines already drawn, to mark the center of the pallets. 
Then strike the curved dead faces of the pallets just touching the radial 
lines last drawn. 

*a. Escape Wheel, b. Pallets. 



181 Graver. 

Now from the pallet center draw lines through the spot where the 
curved locking face oi" each pallet cuts the wheel circle. If jou look at 
the engraving you will see that a wheel tooth is resting on the left-hand 
pallet. The amount of this rest is ^°, as already stated, Mark off this 
■J°, which gives the position of the locking corner of the pallet, and then 
set off another line i^°, below it, which will inark the spot for the other 
corner of the pallet. On the right-hand pallet, the line already drawn 
marks the extreme corner, and it is only necessarj' in order to get the 
locking corner, to set off a line i^° above it. 

The wheel teeth diverge from a radial line about io°, so that only T 
their tips touch the dead faces of the pallets. 

For escaping over ten teeth, the distance between the center of the 
wheel and the center of the pallet staff should be equal to the diameter 
of the wheel ; with this exception the preceding directions are applicable 
for setting out. 

The wheel is of hard hammered bi*ass, and for regulators is made from 
an inch and a half to two inches in diameter, and very light. The pallets 
are usually of steel, nicely fitted to the arbor, and, in addition, screwed to a 
collet thereon as shown. In the best clocks the acting faces are jeweled. 
Sometimes the pallet arms are cast of brass, and the pallets formed 
of solid jewels. Many good clockmakers put two banking pins in the 
plate, one on each side of the crutch, to prevent the pallets from being 
jammed into the wheel by careless handling. 

The Graham escapement requires a heavy pendulum, especially if the 
train is comparatively rough. The clock weight must be sufficient to over- 
come increased resistance arising from inaccuracy of work; consequently^ 
when the train runs freely, so much extra pressure is thrown upon the 
dead faces of the pallets that a light pendulum has not enough energy to 
unlock, and the clock stops. For clocks with shorter than half-seconds 
pendulums the pallets are generally made "half dead," that is the rests, 
instead of being curves struck from the pallet staff hole, are formed so 
as to give a light recoil to the wheel. 

GRAVER. A steel cutting tool used for engraving, turning, etc. 
The "Guaranteed" gravers, shown in Fig. 1154, are unique from the 
fact that they cut at both ends; the handle (which is patented) is so. 
adapted that it will accommodate the reverse ends of innumerable sizes and 
shapes of gravers. The various angles of points of the gravers are very 
excellent and cover the entire field as used both for turning and engraving. 

Use of the Graver.* The beginner should first practice on hard 
wood, then brass, iron, steel and hardened and tempered steel, progressing 

* The directions apply to the use of the graver as a turning- tool only. For directions 
for engraving" on gold, silver, copper, etc., the reader is referred to an excellent work 
by G. F. Whelpley, entitled "General Letter Engraving," George K. Hazlitt & Co., 
Publishers, Chicago. 



Graver. 



1«2 



ing from one material to the other as his ability warrants. He should 
turn for a long time with the point of a square or lozenge-shaped graver, 
the end of which is ground off on a slope ; this is the only possible 
method of learning to turn true^ and it enables the workman to acquire 

great delicacy of touch. Owing 
to carelessness, or to the fact that 
when first beginning they were 
set to work on metal that was 
too hard or rough, most beginners 
turn with gravers that are ground 
to very blunt points ; as the graver 
bites less, they are obliged to 
apply a proportionately increased 
pressure, and only succeed in 
tearing the metal away, subject- 
ing it to a kind of rolling action 
and rendering the hand heavy. 
If a pupil will not practice turn- 
ing with the graver point so as 
to preserve it intact for some 
time, dependent on the nature of 
the metal, he will never be able 
to turn perfectly true. Irregular 
and sudden depressing of the 
graver point, or engaging it too 
deeply, causes its frequent rup- 
ture.f When sufficient exper- 
ience has been gained in turning 
with the graver point and a trial 
is made with the cutting edge, do 
not attempt to take off much at a 
time by pressing heavily, but take 
the metal sideways, so as to re- 
move a continuous thread, using 
all the points of the edge in 
succession. The metal will thus 
be removed as a thin ribbon or 
shaving. When the hand has had 
someex perience, it will be found 
easy to remove long strips. 
Fig. 154. Hardened steel that has been 

drawn down to a blue temper requires certain precautions. If the 
graver is found not to cut cleanly, it must at once be sharpened, and no 

tSee illustrations and directions for holding: graver, under heading: Making Balance 
Staff. 




183 Gravimeter. 

•attempt should be made to remove more metal by increasing the pressure 
•of the hand, because the steel will burnish and become hard under a 
point or edge that is blunt, and the portions thus burnished are some- 
times so hard as to resist the best gravers. The only way of attacking 
them is to begin at one side with a fine graver point, which must be 
sharpened frequently; at times it becomes necessary to temper the metal 
afresh before it will yield. It is well to moisten the point of the graver 
with turpentine. 

Apprentices, and even watchmakers themselves, are frequently care- 
less as to the proper sharpening of their gravers, and think they can 
hasten their work by application of considerable pressure; in this way 
they sometimes produce bright spots that require several hours' work 
before they can be removed. A majority of the Swiss workmen turn 
with the right or left hand indifferently. This is a very useful accom- 
plishment, easily acquired when young. 

GRAVIMETER. An instrument for ascertaining the specific 
gravity of liquid or solid bodies. 

GRAVITY. The tendency which a body has towards the center of 

the earth. 

Specific Gravity. The ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of 
an equal volume ot some other body taken as the standard or unit. 
This standard is usually water for solids and liquids, and air for gases. 
Thus 19, the specific gravity of gold, signifies that gold is 19 times 
heavier than water. 

GRAVITY CLOCK. This is a large glass clock dial, with a stud 
fixed in the center on which revolve two hands, as shown in Fig. 155, 
without any visible power to operate them. Hung in a jeweler's win- 
dow so that it can be inspected from both sides without anyone discover- 
ing the source of power, it forms a great attraction to the curious and so 
becomes a durable and valuable advertisement. Take a plate of glass 
two feet square and lay out and gild a clock dial upon it, avoiding all 
ornament, in order to give the observer as little to see and as much to 
guess as is possible; cement, drill or otherwise fasten a stud in the cen- 
ter of the dial, projecting from the rear side so as to give facility for 
adjustment and certain exhibitions, which will be mentioned later. This 
stud must be perfectly hard and very finely polished in order to reduce the 
friction, which is considerable. The hands should be made of cedar, per- 
fectly di-y pine, or some other extremely light wood, left about a half inch 
thick, so.that they can be nicely counterbalanced with lead, and will appear to 
the observer to be merely wooden hands. The circular discs at the inner 
■extremities of the hands are hollowed out to receive two watch move- 
ments, and the boxes are closed with a cover fitting closely enough so 



Gravity Escapement. 



184 



that it cannot be perceived by ordinary inspection. Each side of the 
hands is perfectly jeweled with large English fusee jewels, so as to 
revolve on the stud with as little friction as possible. The two watch 
movements must be regulated to run as closely together as possible and 
to keep exact time. Two half circles of lead are attached to the move- 
ments in such a way that their rotation in the hollow discs will change 
the center of gravity of the hands and so cause them to rotate on the 
stud of the dial. The lead 
half-circle for the minute hand 
is attached to the minute arbor 
of its movement and that of 
the hour hand to the hour 
pipe on its movement. If 
the wooden hands are nicely 
gilded it will add to the decep- 
tion, as the disc for the move- 
ment may then be made of 
tin and be much smaller and 
more symmetrical. When 
finished, the clock is hung in 
the window, suspended by 
chains from holes bored in the 
corners. We will suppose that 
you have the clock finished 




Fig. 155. 



and running nicely, and that the time shown is 2:20; take hold of the 
hands, bring them together and send them twirling around the dial ; 
when they stop they will show the correct time, say 2:21. Suppose the 
hands show 9:45 or 2:45, bring both hands to 12 or 6 and they will 
immediately assume the correct position. Take off the minute hand 
and lay it on the bench for five or six minutes; put it on again, give it 
a twirl, and it will stop at the correct time. Various other tricks will 
suggest themselves for the astonishment and mystification of the jew- 
eler's patrons, and considerable benefit can be derived from the curiosity 
of an excited town. 



GRAVITY ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in which the train 
raises a lever a constant distance, and the weight of the lever when 
returning to position gives impulse to the pendulum. The double three- 
legged variety was invented by E. B. Denison in 1854. Gravity escape- 
ments are particularly applicable to turret clocks. 

GREAT WHEEL. The wheel on the fusee arbor which drives the 
center pinion. The largest wheel in a watch or clock. 

GRIGNION, THOMAS. A well-known watch and clockmaker, of 
London, who died in 17S4. His son Thomas, also a clockmaker, claimed 




185 Guard Pin. 

for him the honor of bringing to perfection the horizontal principle in 
watches and the dead beat in clocks. 

GROSSMANN, MORITZ. A celebrated horologist, author and 
linguist. Though born and raised in Saxony, he was very conversant 
with the French, Italian and English languages, and contributed to 
many technical journals throughout the world. He was a member of the 
Biitish Horological Institute, the Galileo Galilei, 
Milan, Italy, and the Polytechnic Society of Leipzig. 
It was while in the hall of the latter society, and just 
after delivering a lecture on horology, that he was 
stricken with apoplexy, which resulted in his death 
Jan. 23, 1885. He received his training as a watch- 
maker under the best masters of Saxony, Switzerland, 
France and England. He located in Glashutte, 
^ Saxony, in 1854, and began the manufacture of 

Moriiz Grossman, fi^e watches, tools and metric gauges, and later 
on large sized models of the various escapements. His first essay, 
"The Detached Lever Escapement," was written in 1864 and was awarded 
first prize by the British Horological Institute. In 1869 he took the first 
prize offered by the Chambre de Commerce, Geneva, on the subject of 
"The Construction of a Simple and Mechanically Perfect Watch." In 
187S he published a translation of Claudius Saunier's "Modern Horo- 
logy." 

GUARD PIN. See Safety Pin. 

GYRATE. To revolve around a central point. See Center of Gyra 
tion. 

HAIR SPRING. The spring that determines the time of vibrations 
of the balance. The term hair spring is distinctively American, as all 
other nations use the more fitting appellation of Balance Spring. The 
hair spring was invented by Dr. Robert Hooke in 1658, and first applied 
to a double balance watch for Charles II., on which was inscribed "Robt. 
Hooke, Inven: 1658. T. Tompion, fecit, 1675.'* The spring was nearly 
straight. In 1660 Dr. Hooke altered the form by making it spiral. The 
different forms of hair springs are illustrated in Fig. 157. The most 
common form is the volute or spiral spring, shown at A. B is a helical 
spring used in chronometers. C is a Breguet spring, which is a flat 
spiral with its outer end bent up above the plane of the body of the 
spring, and carried in a long curve towards the center, near which it is 
fixed. The advantage of the Breguet spring is that it distends when in 
action, on each side of the center, thus relieving the balance pivots of the 
side pressure which the ordinary flat spring tends to give, and it alsa 



Hair Spring Stud Index, 



186 



offers opportunities of obtaining isochronism by varying the character of 
the curve. Glasgow says that a hair spring, of whatever form, to be 
isochronous must satisfy the following conditions: its center of gravity 
must always be on the axis of the balance, and it must expand and con- 
tract in the vibrations concentrically with that axis. Immish contends 
that mere length of spring has nothing to do with isochronism. Mr. 
Glasgow contends that the whole question of isochronism resolves itself 
into the adoption of a spring of the correct length, and recommends for 
a lever watch fourteen turns if a flat, and twenty turns if a Breguet 
spring is used, if a cylinder watch use from eight to twelve turns. He 
argues that if a spring is too short, the short vibrations will be fast and 







ABC 

Fig. 157. 
the long vibrations slow, and that all bending and manipulation of the 
spring with a view to obtaining isochronism are really only attempts to 
alter the effective length of the spring. Mr. Britten contends that the 
position of the points of attachment of the inner and outer turns of a hair 
spring in relation to each other has an effect on the long and short 
vibrations quite apart from its length. For instance, a very different 
performance may be obtained with two springs of precisely the same 
length and character in other respects, but pinned in so that one has 
exactly complete turns, and the other a little under or a little over com- 
plete turns. He argues that a short spring as a rule requires to be pinned 
in short or complete turns, and a long one beyond the complete turns. 
_ In duplex and other watches with fric- 

tional escapements, small arcs of vibra- 
tion and short springs, it will be found 
that the spring requires to be pinned in 
nearly half a turn short of complete 
turns. 

HAIR SPRING STUD INDEX. 
Wathier's Self-adjusting Hair Spring 
Stud Index, shown in Fig. 15S, is a very 
useful device, and by its use the watch- 
maker can save much time and can 
obtain better results than by following 
the regular methods of determining 
Place the lower part of balance staff in 
round cleat A. Turn balance until ruby pin comes over oblong hole at 




Fig. 158. 
when a movement is in beat. 



187 



Hair Spring Stud Index. 



B. Now let the balance down until roller table rests on steel center 
plate. The balance will then be ready for the spring. Place the hair 
spring on the staff, with the stud in exact line with the line on the index 
corresponding in name with the movement you wish to put in beat. 
Now fasten the hair spring collet on the staff, and you will find move- 
ment in beat. At a glance, the watchmaker may be lead to believe that 
this tool is only applicable to the fourteen movements shown on the 
index, but in reality it serves for almost every movement that comes 
into the hands of the repairer. For example, the line marked E. 
Howard & Co., not only serves for that make of watches, but also for 
Waltham 14 and 16 sizes. Directions accompany each tool. 

Fig. 159 shows a hair spring stud index recently placed on the market 
by A. W. Johanson. The engraving shows the full size of the tool, 

which consists of a steel plate 
mounted on feet, and pierced with 
a number of holes for the recep- 
tion of screws, when taking down 
a watch. In the center of the 
index is a hole for the staff, and 
an oblong slot for the reception 
of the roller jewel. To get any 
American movement in beat pro- 
_ ceed as follows: In front of No. 

Fig. 159. jQQ ig a small spring, push same 

towards No. 10, then place the balance on top of the stand, with staff 
in center and roller jewel in the oblong hole, let the spring back gently, 
the balance will then take its own position. Set degree hand in front 
of the desired degree, as per directions on index table, place hair spring 
stud in front of degree hand, and push on the collet. 




INDEX TABLE FOR HAIR SPRING STUDS. 



Size. 

Columbus 18 

Columbus 6 

El^in 18 

Elgin 16 

Elgin 16 

Elgin 10 

Elgin...6and8 

Elgin 

Illinois 18 

Illinois 18 

Illinois 18 

Illinois 16 

Illinois 6 

Illinois 4 

Hampden 18 

Hampden 18 



Degree. 
Open Face Breguet..23 
Open P'ace Breguet.. 
Open Face Breguet. .66 
Open Face Breguet.. 52 

Flat Hair Spring 52 

Flat Hair Spring 50 

Flat Hair Spring 50 

Flat Hair Spring 

Open Face Breguet,. 33 

Hunting... 84 

Open Face Flat 89 

Hunting ..52 

Dueber Hunting 80 

Open Face 75 



Size. 

Hampden 16 

Hampden 6 

Howard 18 

Howard 18 

Howard 16 

Howard 6 

Rockford 18 

Rockford 6 

Waltham 18 

AValtham 18 

Waltham... -18 
Waltham. 14-16 
Waltham ..4- 6 

Waltham 1 

Seth Thomas 18 
Seth Thomas 18 



Degree. 

Hunting 50 

Old Model 5 

New Model 23 



Key Flat Hair Spr'g.48 
O. F. Hair Spring... 61 

Breguet 50 

42 

50 

42 

Open Face 50 

Hunting ......53 



Half Plate. 



388 



HALF PLATE. A watch in which the top pivot of the fourth 
wheel pinion is carried in a cock, so as to allow of the use of a larger 
balance than could otherwise be used, 

HALL MARK. The stamp placed upon articles of gold and silver 
after being assayed hy government officials. The United States govern- 
ment does not employ hall marks, but articles can be assayed by the 
proper officers, and a certificate of their standard given upon payment of 
a small fee. The hall marking of watch-cases is not compulsory in 
Switzerland, unless they contain some stamp indicating their quality, 
and the English and other hall marks are recognized. In Great Britain 
with few exceptions, the hall marking of jewelry is optional with the 
manufacturer, but all gold or silver cases made in Great Britain or Ire- 
land must be marked. The hall marks for Switzerland are shown in 




I8k or .750. 14k or .583. 

GOLD. 



Sterling or .935. 

SILVER. 



Fig. 160. 



Fig. 160. Hall marks are not alone useful for determining the quality 
of goods, but are also a great aid in determining the age of watches, etc. 
The hall mark of Great Britain consists of several impressions in separ- 
ate frames or shields; the quality mark, the office mark (which designates 
where it was stamped), year mark, and if duty is chargeable, the head of 
the reigning sovereign. The standard or quality mark for London and 
Birmingham is, for gold, a crown, as shown in Fig. i6i, and i8 or some 
other figure to designate thecal at. The standard mark for 22 carat 

gold prior to 1845 was a lion passant, 
which is now used as the quality 
mark for sterling silver. The quality 
mark for 15k. gold is 15 or .625, for 
Fig. 161. J 2k. is 12 or .5 and for 9k. is 9 or .375. 

The decimals indicate the proportions of pure gold of 24k. in the alloys. 
The office or location mark for London is a Leopard's head in a shield, 
as shown in Fig. 161. The leopard's head was crowned prior to 1823. 
Watch cases have been exempt from duty in Great Britain since 1798, 
but all foreign cases are stamped, the die for silver being an octagon 
with the word foreign and for gold a cross. These dies also contain a 
mark to show where marked, that of London having a sun or full moon. 






180 



Hall Marks. 




i^!@ 



:0 \ i CO 





BiiM 





e 



iSi^Qi^ 




gi®!® 








I'^ig. 162, 



Hand. 



190 



In Great Britain, from 1697 to 1823, the standard mark for silver was 
a Lion's head, and the office mark a figure of Britannia, but from the 
latter date to the present time, a lion passant and a leopard's head have 
been used. The date marks shown in Fig. 162, will prove very valuable 
in fixing the dates of watches made in Great Britain as in most cases, 
the case was made at a date coinciding pretty closely with the manufact- 
ure of the watch. 

HAND. An index or pointer used in indicating minutes and hours 
on a watch, clock or similar dial. 

HAND REMOVER. The style of watch hand remover shown in 
Fig. 163 is a very nice pattern and can also be used as a roller remover 

and for several other purposes. 
The action of the tool can be 
readily understood by exam- 
^^^- ^^^' ining the illustration. The 

threaded wire in the center extends through the entire tool and is raised 
or lowered by the milled nut at the end of the handle. This tool can 
also be used for holding hands while broaching the hole, or the tool 
shown in Fig. 164, and known as the nine-hole sliding tongs, and many 




Fig. 164. 

other patterns, for sale by material dealers, may be used for the same 
purpose. Fig. 165 shows a second hand holder, with the hand in posi- 
tion ready to broach. This tool can also be used as a screw head tool. 
In order to broach out a new hand, if the boss of the old hand has been 
preserved, place a small 
slip of cork upon the 
end of the broach and 
insert it in the old hand ^^"fi'- ^^5- 

as far as it will go, and the new hand may then be broached until the cork 
is reached before trying it for a fit. The holes in the hands may be closed 
by forcing them into a conical hole in a steel plate, first turning off the 
metal around the edge of the hole, so that it is left rather thin, or it may 
be contracted after reducing the edge, by means of the stake. 

HARRIS, RICHARD. A clockmaker of London. Comparatively 
little is known I of this clockmaker, except that a friend of his, one 
Thomas Grignion, authorized his son to make known that Richard Har- 
ris was the person who first applied a pendulum to a clock, eight years 
before Vincent Galileo laid claim to having made a clock regulated by a 




191 Harrison. 

pendulum. There is no evidence, however, to prove that Harris was 
the inventor of the pendulum, 

HARRISON, JOHN. This celebrated horologist was born at 
Faulby, Yorkshire, England, in 1693. In 1700 the family moved tO' 
Barrow, in Lincolnshire, where he carried on the business of repairing 
watches and clocks. In 1735 he went to London 
with a timekeeper of his own invention and construc- 
tion, and through the interest taken in him by 
Graham and Halley, he was allowed, in 1736, to take 
it on board a king's ship to Lisbon. In 1761 he made 
another chronometer which was thought sufficiently 
correct to enable him to claim the government 
reward offered in 1714. The government offered 
£20,000 to anyone who would make a chronometer 
John Harrison. that would determine the longitude to within half a 
degree. He received the reward in 1767. He is credited with being the 
inventor of the going fusee and the gridiron pendulum. He died in 
1776. 

HAUTEFEUILLE, JOHN. An ingenious mechanic born at 
Orleans in 1764. He was the first person to apply a small steel spring^ 
to regulate the vibrations of the balance. Huyghens applied for a patent 
on the invention, but was refused, on the ground that Hautefeuille had 
laid his invention before the Academy of Sciences in 1694, some years 
before. In 1722 he invented what was known as the rack lever escape- 
ment. 

HENLEIN, PETER. A clockmaker of Nuremberg, to whom 
some authorities give the credit of the invention of the pocket watch. 
It is claimed that he made pocket watches or clocks, soon after the year 
1500. He was born in 1480, and died in"i542. 

HOOKE, ROBERT. He was born at Freshwater, Isle of Wight, 
on the i8th of July, 1635. In 1658 he invented the hairspring and 
applied it to a watch for Bishop Wilklns in 1661. About the same time 
he invented the circular or conical pendulum, which was in 1663 shown 
in the Royal Society. In 1664 the Royal Society gave him an annuity 
of £30 for his work as director of experiments. He invented anchor 
pallets in 1666. In 1655 he invented a wheel cutting engine and round- 
ing-up tool for watch and clockmakers. He was also the inventor of the 
hydrometer and leveling instrument, and the author of the axiom on 
the compression and extension of springs and other elastic bodies "as the 
tension is so is the force." In 1677 he was elected Honorarj' Secretary of 
the Royal Society. He died March 3, 1702, and was buried in St. 
Helen's church, London. 



Horological Books. 192 

HORIZONTAL ESCAPEMENT. (See Cylinder Escapement.) 

HOROLOGICAL BOOKS. The following, list of books published 
on horology and kindred subjects from 1639 to 1850 inclusive, may prove 
of value to those who have a horological library or who contemplate 
such a step. Works on horology have become so numerous since 1850 
that the space at command will not admit of their mention. 

L'usage du Cadran ou de I'Horloge Physique universel. Galileo, 
Paris, 1639. 

Nuova Scienza di Horologi a Polvere. Angelo Maria P. Radi, 4to, 
Rome, 1665. 

Instructions concerning the use of Pendulum Watches for finding the 
Longitude at Sea. Christian Huyghens, Phil. Trans., London, 1669. 

Horologium Oscillatorium, sive de motu pendulorum ad Horologia 
aptato. F. Muguet, Paris, 1673. 

Horologium Oscillatorium, sive de motu Pendulorum. Christian 
Huyghens, Paris, 1673. 

Factum touchant les Pendules des Cloches. John Hautefeuille, 4to, 
Paris, 1675. 

Horological Dialogues in three parts, shewing the nature, use and 

right managing of Clocks and Watches. John Smith, London, 1675. 

This was, beyond doubt, the first work on horology printed in the 
English language. 

On Portable Watches. Godfrej-^ William de Leibnitz, Phil. Trans., 
London, 1675. 

A new invention of a Clock descending on an Inclined Plane. M. de 
Gennes, Phil. Trans., London, 1678. 

Concerning a movement that measures Time after a peculiar manner; 
being a Clock descendant on an Inclined Plane. Rev. Maurice Wheeler, 
M. A., Phil. Trans., London, 1684. 

Horological Disquisitions concerning the Nature of Time, etc. John 
Smith, i2mo, London, 1694. A second edition, London, 1708. 

The Artificial Clockmaker. Wm. Derham, D. D., F. R. S., 8vo, 
London, 1696. A second edition, 1700, Fourth edition, with large 
emendations, i2mo, London, 1734. New edition, i2mo, London, 1759. 

The antiquity of Clockwork. Wm, Durham, London, 1700. 

Philosophical Experiments and observations of Dr. Robert Hooke, 
F. R. S., Wm. Derham, London, 1700. 

Balance Magnetique. John Hautefeuille, 4to, Paris, 1702. 



193f Horological Books. 

Reasons of the English Clock and Watchmakers against the Bill to 
Confirm the pretended new Invention of using precious and common 
Stones about Watches, Clocks and other Engines. London, 1704. 

Regie Artificielle du Temps, Henry Sully. Paris, 1717. A second 
edition 1717, with additions by J ulien LeRoy. 

Description abregee d'une Horloge d'une nouvelle construction, pour 
la juste mesure du Temps sur mer. Henry Sully, Paris, 1726. 

A contrivance to avoid the Irregularities in a Clock's Motion, occa- 
sioned by the action of Heat and Cold on the Pendulum Rod. Phil.*^ 
Trans., London, 1726. 

Letter asserting his right to the Curious and Useful Invention of 
making Clocks to keep time with the Sun's Apparent Motion. Joseph 
Williamson, Phil. Trans., London, 1726. 

Observations on the Going of a Clock in Jamaica. Colin Campbell, 
Phil. Trans., London, 1734. 

Traite General des Horloges, Jacques Alexandre (R. P. Dom), Paris, 

1734- 

Experiments on the Vibrations of Pendulums. Wm. Durham, D. D., 
F. R. S., Phil. Trans, London, 1736. 

Traite d'Horlogerie. M. Thiout, 2 vols., Paris, 1741. 

Of the True Inventor of the Contrivances in the Pendulum of a Clock 
to Prevent Irregularities of its motion from Heat or Cold. James Short, 
F. R. S., Phil. Trans. London, 1751. 

Description of two methods by which the Irregularities in the motion 
of a clock, arising from the influences of heat or cold on the Pendulum, 
may be prevented. John Ellicott, London, 1753. 

Account of the Influence of two Pendulum Clocks on each other. 
John Ellicott, 4to, London. No date. 1754.'* 

Traite d'Horlogerie. J. E. Lepaute, Paris, 1755. 

L'Art des Conduire et de Regler les Pendules et les Montres. F. 
Berthoud, Paris, 1760. 

Concerning the going of Mr. Ellicott's clock at St. Helena. Jas. Short 
F. R. S., Phil. Trans., London, 1762. 

Observations on a clock of Mr. John Shelton, made at St Helena. 
Nevil Maskelyne, Phil. Trans., London, 1762. 

Mechanicus and Flaveus ; or the Watch Spiritualized. 8vo, London, 
1763. 



Horological Books. 194 

Les Quatres Parties du Jour. Charles Francis de Saint-Lambert 
Paris, 1764. 

Etudes Chronometriques. Pierre Le Roy, Paris, 1764. 

Account of the Proceedings in order to the Discovery of the Longi- 
tude at Sea, subsequent to those published in the year 1763. John Har- 
rison, 8vo, London, 1765. 

Supplement a I'Essai sur 1' Horlogerie. F. Berthoud, Paris, 1765. 

Thoughts on the Means of Improving Watches, and particularly those 
for use at sea. Thos. Mudge, Jr., London, 1765. 

Elements of Clock and Watch Work adapted to practice. Alexander 
Cumming, 410, London, 1766, 

Remarks on a Pamphlet lately published by Dr. Maskelyne. John 
Harrison, 8vo, London, 1767. 

The Principles of Mr. Harrison's Timekeeper; with plates of the same 
on India Paper, Published by order of the Commissioners of Longitude. 
4to, London, 1767. 

The Mensuration of Time. John Harrison, London, 1767. 

An account of the going of Mr. Harrison's Watch, at the Royal 
Observatory, from 6th May, 1766, to March 4th, 1667, with the original 
observations and calculations of the same. Nevil Maskelyne, D. D., F. 
R. S, 4to, London, 1768. 

Memoirs for the Clock-makers of Paris, ent Etrennes Chronometriques. 
Treatise on the Labours of Harrison and Le Roy for the discovery of 
the Longitude at Sea, and of the proofs made of their works. English 
translation from the French of Peter Roy, 4to, London, 1768. 

Select Mechanical Exercises,showing how to construct different Clocks, 
Orreries and Sun dials on plain and easy principles. James Ferguson, 
F. R. S., 8vo, London, 1773. 

Traite des Horloges Marine. F. Berthoud, 4to, Paris, 1673. 

An Introduction to the Mechanical part of Watch and Clock Work, 
Illustrated with iS copper plates. Thomas Hatton, Svo, London, 1774. 

Les Longitudes par la Mesure du Temps. F. Berthoud, 4to, Paris, 
1775- 

Eclaircissements sur I'lnvention des Nouvelles Machines proposees 
pour la determination des Longitudes en Mer, par la mesure du temps,. 
F. Berthoud, 4to, Paris, 1775. 

Clock work and Music. John Harrison, Svo, London, 1775. 



195 Horological Books. 

A letter from Mr. Christian Meyer, Astronomer to the Elector Pala- 
tine, to Mr. N. N., on the going of a New Pendulum Clock, made by Mr. 
John Arnold, and set up in the Elector's Observatory, at Manheim. 
From the German, 4to, London, 1781. 

La Mesure du Temps Appliquee a la Navigation. F. Berthoud, 4to, 
Paris, 1783. 

Essai sur I'Horlogerie. F. Berthoud, 2 vols., 4to, 1763. Reprinted 
1786. 

De la Mesure du Temps. F. Berthoud, 4to, Paris, 1787. 

Narrative of Facts Relating to some Timekeepers Constructed by 
Thos. Mudge. Thos. Mudge, Jun., London, 1792. 

Answer to a pamphlet, entitled, A Narrative of Facts, lately published 
by T. Mudge, Jun , relating to some timekeepers constructed by his 
father, Mr. Thos Mudge. Nevil Maskelyne, Svo, London, 1792. 

Investigations, founded on the theory of Motion, for determinating 
the Times of Vibrations of Watch Ballances. George Atwood, Phil. 
Trans., London, 1794. 

Histoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horologes. F. Berthoud, 
2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1802. 

Pocket Watches. Parr, London, 1804. 

Essai sur I'Histoire abregee de 1' Horlogerie. M. Perron, Paris, 1820. 

Account of Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth by 
means of the Pendulum vibrating seconds in different Latitudes; as well 
as on other subjects of Philosophical Inquiry. Captain Sabine, 4to, Lon- 
don, 1825. 

An Appeal. Thos. Earnshaw, Svo, London, 1836. 

Historical Treatise on Horology. Henderson, Svo, London, 

1836 

Results of Experiments on the Vibration of Pendulums with different 
Suspending Springs. J. W. Frodsham, 4to, London, 1839. 

A Treatise on the Management of Public Clocks, etc., Francis Abbot, 
London. No date. About 1840. Three editions. 

Eiffe's Improvements in Chronometers and Molyneux's Specification 
of Patent for Improvement in Chronometers. 4to, London, 1842. 

On the Construction and Management of Chronometers. E.J. Dent, 
8vo, London, 1S42. 

Traits d'Horlogerie. Louis Moinet, Paris, 1843. 
Railroad Clocks. B L Vulliamy, 8vo, London, 1845. 



Hour Glass. 



196 



Treatise on Clock and Watch Making, Theoretical and Practical. 
Thomas Raid. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1826. Reprint, Philadelphia, 1832. 
Reprint, London, 1847. 

Time and Time Keepers. Adam Thompson, i2mo., London, 1847. 

Clock and Watchmaking. E. B, Denison, M. A., i2mo, London, 

1848. 

HOUR GLASS. An instrument for measuring the hours, consist- 
ing of a glass vessel having two cone-shaped compartments, from the 
uppermost of which a quantity of sand, water, or mercury occupies an 
hour in running through a small aperture into the lower. 

HOUR WHEEL. The wheel which turns on the cannon pinion 
and carries the hour hand. 

HOURIET, F. A noted Swiss watchmaker of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. He worked for nine years in Paris with sueh men as F. Berthoud, 
Romilly and Le Roy. He afterwards returned to Neufchatel, and much 
of the rapid progress made by the watchmakers of that canton was 
credited to his efforts. 



HOWARD, EDWARD. The veteran watch and clockmaker of 
Boston. He was born in Hingham, Mass., Oct. 6, 1813. He served an 
apprenticeship of seven years as a clockmaker. At the age of twenty- 
nine he embarked in the business of clockmaking on his own account, 
his partner being D. P. Davis, and the firm being known as Howard & 
Davis. The firm manufactured a very superior 
line of clocks and regulators, and their goods soon 
gained a world-wide reputation. In 1849 Mr. 
Howard, together with A. L. Dennison, Samuel 
Curtis, a Boston capitalist, and D. P. Davis 
organized a company for the manufacture of 
watches. This company was separate and distinct 
from that of Howard & Davis, and was known as 
the American Horologe Company. This com- 
pany was the first in the world to undertake 
the manufacture of watches on the interchange- 
able system. The first watches were made to 
run eight days and had two barrels. They proved a failure, how^ever, 
and were soon abandoned. The factory was situated directly opposite 
to the Howard & Davis shop. The name of the company was changed 
subsequently to the Warren Manufacturing Company, and later to the 
Boston Watch Company. In 1854 the location of the factory was 
changed to Waltham. In 1857 the company made an assignment, and 




Edward Howard. 



197 



Huyghens. 



the property, consisting of real estate, the factory, and numerous other 
buildings, machinery, steam engine, etc., was offered at public auction 
and was bid in for $56,500 by Royal E, Robbins, for himself and the 
firm of Tracy & Baker, case makers of Philadelphia, who were creditors 
of the defunct company. After the failure of the Boston Watch Com- 
pany, Mr. Howard returned to Roxbury and continued with his clock 
business in connection with Mr. Davis. In 1858 he again began manu- 
facturing watches in the old factory of the Boston Company, in Roxbury, 
and placed on the market the first quick train movements ever made 




Factory of Boston Watch Co., 1857. 

in this country. Even in those early days of American watchmaking,, 
the Howard watches were noted for their superior qualities as time keep- 
ers, a reputation which followed them up to the present time. In 1861 
the Howard Clock and Watch Company was organized with a capital of 
$120,000. In 1863 the name was changed to the Howard Watch and 
Clock Company and in 1881 it was again changed to the E. Howard 
Watch and Clock Company. In 1882 Mr. Howard severed his connec- 
tion with the watch company and retired from all active business. Mr. 
Howard invented many labor saving devices in the horological line, 
among which may be mentioned the swing rest. 



HUYGHENS, CHRISTIAN. A Dutch mathematician and author 
of a work on pendulums. He was born at the Hague on 14th of April, 1629. 
In 1665, Louis XIV. invited him to Paris for the purpose of founding a 
Royal Academy of Science. He resided in Paris from 1666 to 1681, 
when he returned to Holland. In the year 1656, he first conceived the 
idea of applying a pendulum to a clock, and at once set to work at his 
task. On the i6th of June, 1657, he presented to the States of Holland 
his first pendulum clock. In 1658 Adrian Ulaag, of the Hague, pub- 
lished for him in Dutch, a short description of this new clock. In 1673, 



Huyghens. 



198 



finding that Vincent Galileo and others claimed the merit of the adaptation 
he authorized F. Muguet, of Paris to publish for him a valuable work 
entitled '* Horologium oscillatorium, sive de motu pendulorum ad 
Horologia aptato," wherein he gave the construction of his clocks, with 
drawings, and the theory (useless in practice), of the cjcloidal checks 
as a means of rectifying the variations in the length of the arcs of vibra- 
tion of the pendulum. Galileo claimed to have adapted a pendulum to 
a clock as early as 1649, but there appears to be no authority to be relied 
on, to prove his having done so. Dr. Hooke was another of the claimants 






Fig. 169. 



Fig. 170. 



Fig. 171. 



for the honor of the first application of the pendulurri to a clock, but 
Nelthropp, after reviewing the question says: But it may without much 
fear of contradiction be here asserted that to the careful searcher after 
truth, the following conclusions only can be arrived at. First — That 
credit ought to be given to Huyghens for being the first to apply the 
discovery of Galileo to a clock. 2nd. That Dr. Hooke can justly lay 
claim to having brought the whole matter to perfection by the invention 
of his anchor escapement, which enabled him to use a long pendulum 
with a heavy bob, thereby rendering the arcs of vibration shorter, and 
necessitating much less motive power. 

Huyghens' clock is shown in Fig. 169. The upper part of the pendu- 
lum is a double cord hanging between two cyloidal checks, to give a 



199 Hypocycloid. 

cycloidal path to the bob. Fig. 170 gives a better idea of the device, 
which was no doubt of advantage with the long arcs required by the 
Verge Escapement. Another feature of Huyghens' clock is the main- 
taining power. The driving weight, P, Fig. 171, is supported by an end- 
less cord passing over the pulley D, attached to the great wheel, and 
also over the pulley H, which is provided with ratchet teeth and 
pivoted to the inside of the clock case. The cord m is pulled down to 
wind the clock, and the ratchet wheel H then runs under its click. So 
that while winding, as in going, one-half of P minus one-half of / is 
driving the clock. The pulleys D and H are spiked to prevent slipping 
of the cord. 

W hen this ingenious maintaining power is applied to a clock with a 
striking train, the pulley with the ratchet is attached to the great wheel 
of the striking part, one weight thus serving to drive both trains. A 
chain is preferable to a cord, owing to the dust which accumulates in the 
clock through the wearing of the latter. 

HYPOCYCLOID. A curve generated by a point in the circumfer- 
ence of a circle when it is rolled within another circle. The proper 
shape for the teeth of the wheels that are driven by others having epicy- 
cloidal addenda. If the tracing circle is half the diameter of the one 
within which it rolls, the hypocycloid will be a radial line. 

ICE BOX. A box or chamber used when adjusting chronometers and 
line watches for temperature. It is usually built in the form of a double 
"box, the ice being placed between the two boxes and both boxes hermeti- 
cally sealed, so that the movement may not come in contact with damp 
air. The outer box is provided with a drain pipe for carrying off the 
water and plate glass is inserted in the front of each box, so that the move- 
ment may be viewed without removing it from the box. The cover of 
the inner box should not be removed for at least two hours after it has 
teen removed from the ice chamber in order to protect the steel work 
irom rust caused by the condensation of the air in the cold metal. 

IDLER. I, An idle wheel. 2, A wheel for transmitting motion from 
one wheel to another, either by contact or by means of belts, as the wheel 
on a countershaft, or overhead fixture. 3, An intermediate wheel used 
for reversing motion. Figs. 172 And 173 illustrate two forms of idlers, 
sometimes called overhead fixtures. The supports for the idlers are 
adjustable in all directions. They are especially valuable for use on 
slide rest tools, such as polisher, milling attachments, etc., to give a ver- 
tical direction to the belts. The rods are about 20 inches long and the 
pattern shown in Fig. 172 has a ball and socket joint where it is 
screwed to the bench. The radial arms which hold the pulleys may 



Impulse Pin. 



200 



be adjusted to any position on the rod bv means of a thumb screw, and 
the pulleys have a lateral plaj of ^ of an inch to aid in maintaining 

greater freedom of the belt during the travel 
of the tool on the slide rest. The idlers shown 
were designed by A. VV. Johanson, and have 
hard rubber pulleys i3^ inches in diameter, 
having brass bushings. The style shown in 
Fig- 173 is intended to be clamped on the 
swiveled bearing of the counter shafts which 
are supported on standards. 

IMPULSE PIN. The ruby pin of the 
lever escapement which, entering the notch 
of the lever, unlocks the escape wheel and 
then receives impulse from the lever and 
passes out at the opposite side, 

INDEPENDENT SECONDS. A move- 
ment having a seconds hand that is driven by 
a separate train. 

INDEX, The small curved plate with 
divisions on its face, over which the regulator 
arm passes. The circular plate at the back of 
a lathe head, having holes drilled around its 
margin for the reception of a pin, for dividing 
a wheel or other object placed in a chucks 
Sometimes called a dividing plate. 

INERTIA. That property of matter by which it tends when in rest 
to remain so, or when set in motion to continue so. 

INGOLD FRAISE. A pinion-shaped cutter used for correcting 
inaccuracies in the shape of wheel teeth, invented by Ingold, a Swiss 
watchmaker. This consists really of a hardened pinion with square,, 
sharp points. The fraise is gradually brought into depth, in a specially 
arranged depth tool, with a wheel whose teeth are incorrect, and rotated 
the while by means of a ferrule and bow. The fraises do not supercede 
the rounding up tool, but may often be used after it with advantage, for 
if a wheel contain any thick teeth they would not be corrected in the 
rounding up tool, which also of necessity leaves the teeth slightly hollow. 
The fraises cut the teeth in the direction they move on the pinion in 
working, and, therefore, leave a surface which works with the least fric- 
tion. 

A fraise for any particular wheel should be chosen so that, when placed 
upon the wheel, the fraise does not bottom, but just touches the sides 
and almost closes over the middle one of the teeth engaged, at the same 




Fig. 172. Fig. 173. 



201 Involute. 

time just making contact with the teeth right and left. If the fraise 
chosen is too large, it will cut a jagged and uneven tooth ; and, if too 
small, will leave a ridge or shoulder on the tooth ; in this, as in everything 
else, practice makes perfect. As a guide at first, it will be prudent to 
use the sector to ascertain the most suitable fraise for use; thus — place 
the wheel to be operated upon in the sector, and choose a fraise of such 
size as will correspond, not to the size indicated by the number of its 
teeth, but to tzvo teeth less. 

INVOLUTE. The curve traced by the end of a string wound upon 
a roller or unwound from it. Tnis was a favorite shape for wheel 
teeth at one time, but was abandoned because it was found that the 
pressure on the pivot was increased by it, and it is now entirely super- 
ceded by the epicycloidal. 

ISOCHRONAL. Uniform in time; moving in equal time. When 
the long and short arcs of a balance are caused to be performed in the 
same time by means of a hairspring, that spring is said to be an 
isochronal one, or isochronous. When the vibrations of a pendulum are 
all of the same duration, no matter through what extent of arc the pen- 
dulum moves, the vibrations are isochronal. 

JACOT PIVOT LATHE. A tool used but little in this country,, 
the American lathe and its attachments having superceded it. It is used 
for reburnishing and dressing up pivots. 

JANVIER, ANTIDE. He was celebrated for his skill in represent- 
ing planetary movements by the aid of mechanism. He was a profound 
mathematician. He was born at Saint-Claude-du-Jura, in 1751, and died 
in 1835. 

JAPANESE CLOCKS. The Japanese use a clock which divides 
the day into twelve hours, and an attempt is made to follow the varia- 
tions of the solar day, so that the period from sunrise to sunset shall be 
divided into six equal portions, which vary in length according to the 
season. These clocks are of three kinds. The first has a dial, on which 
the hours are printed, which turns with a varying speed, according to 
the season, while the time is denoted by means of a fixed index. The 
second has a dial rotating with a constant rate, but the points indicating 
the hours approach automatically nearer to the center when the season 
calls for shorter hours. The third has no dial, but instead uses a vertical 
scale which is traversed by an index attached to the weight; see Figs. 174 
and 175. The works consist of the drum, B, around which the cord winds 
from two other wheels, and a verge balance with spiral spring. Three 



Japanese Clocks. 



202 



thousand eight hundred vibrations are produced for each revolution of 
the drum. The w^eight is composed of the striking works and carries the 
index A, which points to the hours as the weight descends. The strik- 
ing works consist of a barrel b. Fig. 176, with spring and a train of four 












ex 




=11 




Fig^ 116. 




Fig. 177. 



Fig. 174. 



Fig. 176. 



wheels, ending with a lone pinion. The first wheel, a, carries pins which 
control the hammer to strike the gong T; the second wheel, c, carries an 
elbow which stops the train and raises the bascule L with one end, while 



203 



Jewel. 



the other end impels the wheel R at each revolution. The weight 
strikes against the pins //, b^ Fig. 175, as it descends. These pins act 
successively on the arm L, Fig. 176, turning the bascule G and liberat- 
ing the hammer, which strikes the gong. The wheel R, Fig. 177, has 
three cuttings that allow but one stroke of the hammer, and three others 
that allow two strokes, the remainder being divided so as to give 4, 5, 6, 
7, 8 and 9 strokes respectively. 

JEROME, CHAUNCEY. Mr. Jerome was one of the earliest 
clockmakers of America and at one time was one of the largest manu- 
facturers. He was born at Canaan, Conn., June 10, 1793. In i8i6 he 
went to work for Eli Terry, then the largest 
manufacturer of clocks in America. In 1817 he 
started in the business of clockmaking for himself 
in a small way. He put up the first circular saw 
ever used in Bristol, in 182:^. In 1824 he organ- 
ized a company for the manufacture of clocks. 
In 1838 he put the first brass clock upon the 
market. In 1842 he introduced these brass clocks 
in England, being the first American manufac- 
turer of clocks who succeeded in establishing a 
In 1850 he organized the Jerome Manufacturing 
Company, which carried on the large clock business of its time. Owing 
to poor management the company failed in 1855, and Jerome, although 
a very rich man at one time, was hopelessly ruined by this failure. 
This company was succeeded by the New Haven Clock Company. 

JEWEL. In watch work, a stone having a hole pierced in it for the 
reception of a pivot. To Nicholas Facio, a native of Genoa, is attributed 
the invention of piercing stones for this purpose, early in the eighteenth 
•century. See Facio. 

JEWEL HOLDER. This tool, which is shown in Fig. 179, is 
intended for holding jewels when cleaning and manipulating, and is far 
superior to the ordinary tweezers as it holds the jewel firmly and there 




Chauncey Jerome. 
trade with England. 




Fig. 179. 

in no danger of it snapping out as with tweezers. The jaws being made 
of boxwood it will not injure the finest setting. The metal parts are of 
German silver. 



Jeweling. 



204 



JEWELING. The act of fitting in jewels for pivots to run in, to 
diminish wear of the acting parts. Sapphires and rubies are used in the 
better class of work, while in cheaper watches garnets are substituted. 
In escapement holes, where endstones are used, as in Fig. i8i, the jewel 





Fig. 180. 



Fig. 181. 



in a loose setting is fitted into a recessed hole, and upon it the end-stone, 
also set in metal, is laid, and the whole secured bj two small screws. In 
cheaper movements the jewel is rubbed in, as shown in Fig. i8o. * 



JEWELING TOOL. Fig. 182 illustrates Hutchinson's Automatic 
Jeweling Tool. To cut a setting for a jewel 
place tool in tail-stock and taper in head of 
lathe, and see that corner of cutter E comes 
to center. If it does not, turn screw D back 
or forward until it comes to the center. Now 
drill hole half as large as the jewel vou wish 
to set; then place jewel in slot A, and bring 
index finger over until jewel is tight in slot A, 
being careful to have jewel in center of slot 
and not to one side. Now turn set screw C up 
setting exact size. 




Fig. 182. 
tight and tool will cut 



JEWELING AND STAKING TOOL. Hopkins' patent jeweling 
and staking tool, shown in Fig. 183, is an ingenious device, and one that 
will be found very useful to the watch repairer. As the spindle, or 
handle, to which the cutters and burnishers P. P. P. are attached, is sus- 
tained in upright position when in use, bv the long bearings through which, 
it passes in the upright F. independently of the lower center, the hole to 
be cut may be centered either from below or above as preferred ; and the 
depth to which it is desired a cutter shall work is regulated by adjust- 
ment of the sliding collar E, and this being a correct uprighting, as well 
as jeweling tool, with it a pivot hole, or a jewel setting the correct center 
(upright) of which has been lost, may readily be corrected, or its true 
center again found, and, what in some cases would be a very desirable 
consideration, by careful manipulation with the cutter, which is under 
perfect control of the operator, the position of jewel settings may be so 
changed so as to alter the depth of locking of the wheels to any desired 

* For full directions in regard to making and setting jewels the reader is referred to 
Watch and Chronometer Jeweling, published by Geo. K. Ilazlitt & Co., Chicago. 



205 



Jeweling Tool. 



extent. To regulate the depth to which it is desired a cutter shall work 
below the surface of a plate, lower the spindle D till, when moved out 
sufficiently far, the end of the cutter will rest down on the top of the 
plate to be operated upon, and fasten it there by lightly tightening the 
screw K ; this done, adjust and fasten the collar E on the spindle D, to the 




Fig. 183. 

same height above the top of the upright F as it is desired the cutter shall 
work, below the surface of the plate on which it now rests. This, when 
the spindle D has been again set free by loosening the screw K, will of 
course allow the cutter to sink into the hole to be operated upon to the 
exact distance the collar E had been set above the top of F. In adjust- 
ing the collar E, the graduated wedge. No. 4, or the jewel to be set, as 
preferred, may be used as a gauge. The burnishers, No. 9, are used both 
for opening and closing settings; the same burnisher, having chosen one 



Jeweling Caliper Rest. 



206 



of proper size, is used for both purposes ; the side being used for open- 
ing the setting, and the beveled and rounded end for burnishing it 
down again over the jewel. The pieces 13 and 14 are made to fit in the 
lower end of the spindle D (the cutter P having been removed), same 
as an ordinary drill stock, and are used for burnishing the edges of a 
jewel setting down flat over the jewel, countersinking screw heads, 
giving end shake to wheels, etc.; and being easily made, any one 
owning the tool can make these for himself, of forms and sizes 
to suit the particular work in hand. For uprighting purposes, 
withdraw the spindle D and substitute No. 5, the rings. No. 3, being 
intended for laying the work on, on the tool bed. For upright drill- 
ing through watch plates, mark the place to be drilled (prick punch it 
slightly) with the cone point of No. 5 ; which done, turn the spindle 
No. 5 upside down and rest the upper end of the drill in the countersink 
in its end, the drill being operated with a fiddle bow acting on a collet 
placed on its shank for the purpose. For cutting off bushings level with 
a watch plate, either a cutter of the No. 13 or 14 class, or one of the P 
cutters can be used. For staking or riveting wheels upright on their 
pinions, lay the stake No. 7 level on the tool bed (the center M having 
been fastened down out of the way), and with No 5 center accurately the 
hole to be used in the stake, and fasten it there by means of the clamps 
N; then remove the cone end of No. 5, and place a punch with hole in 
its end of the required size, on the part m, and proceed as in an ordinary 
upright staking tool. 



JEWELING CALIPER REST. This tool will be found very 

useful for setting jewels in 
plates or settings, in counter- 
sinking for screw heads, open- 
ing wheels for pinions or bush- 
ings, turning barrel heads, etc. 
The sliding jaws of the cali- 
pers should be so adjusted 
that when the swinging part 
is brought back snugly against 
them, the front cutting edge 
of the cutter in the sliding 
spindle will exactly line with 
the center of the lathe spindle. 
Then if the calipers are at the 
right height, when a jewel or 
jewel setting is placed in the 
jPj^g^ jy^ jaws of the caliper it will move 

the edge of the cutter outward from the lathe center just half the diameter 
of the jewel then in the caliper, and the cutting made at that distance 




207 Jewel Pin. 

from the center will exactly coincide with the size of the jewel to be set 
If however, if set and worked as above, it is found that the hole cut is too- 
large for the jewel, it will indicate that the calipers are too low down, and 
should be raised, provision for which is made in the construction of the 
tool. If on the other hand, the cutting is found too small to fit, it will 
indicate the calipers should be lowered. The final cutting for the jewel 
seat should be made by running the center straight inward from the face 
of the plate; the adjustable screw stop on the back end of the sliding, 
spindle serving to gauge the depth of the cutting. 

JEWEL PIN. To set a jewel pin in the table roller (of American 
watches) correctly, is a difficult task. Where the jewel pin is broken off, 
you will often save much valuable time by examining the broken part 
with your glass and noting the exact location of the pin before disturbing 
it. In some movements the jewel pin will beset as in Fig 185, occupy- 
ing about two-thirds of the hole, in another movement the pin will not 
occupy much over one-half the space, as shown in Fig 186. By using; 
care in selecting a jewel pin of 
precisely the same size as the 
old one and in inserting it in the 
same place, nine out of every 
ten movements will be found 
mechanically perfect and the 
balance have a good motion if 
the escapement is perfect. Most 

watchmakers remove the table k. I ^ ®! 

roller from the balance staff, in 



® 




C 




Fig. 185. Fig. 186. 

Fig. 187. 



case the jewel pin is loose. This 
you will find unnecessary if you 
will make the following de- 
scribed tool and use as directed. Take a piece of copper wire about half 
the thickness of a common pin tongue and bend it as shown in Fig. 187 
so that it will be about one and one-eighth inch long. Cut or saw a 
groove in the inside of the ends, sufficiently deep to hold on to the table 
roller, say one-fourth inch from the end. This can be easilv bent to 
accommodate all sizes of tables. If you wish to soften the cement to 
tighten or replace a new jewel pin, it is only necessary to slip on the 
copper wire, and hold the extreme outer end in the flame of a small 
alcohol lamp a few moments and sufficient heat will follow the copper 
wire to soften the cement. Care must be exercised to keep the pin in 
the proper position, and when sufficiently heated, remove the wire 
quickly and allow the table to cool. By use of this little tool there is no 
need of removing the table roller, and absolutely no danger of injuring 
the finest expansion balance, as the tool need not, and must not touch 
the balance. The end of this tool is held in the flame by a pair of 



Jewel Pin Setter. 308 

soldering tweezers. Always use shellac for cementing the jewel pin 
in the table roller. 

JEWEL PIN SETTER. Fig 188 illustrates the Logan patent. It 
is an excellent tool and will save the workman considerable time and 



Fig. 188. 

much annojance by its use. Every watchmaker is aware what a difficult 
and tedious matter it is to set a jewel pin correctly. With this tool the 
job is accomplished quickly and accurately. 

JODIN, JEAN. A clever French watchmaker of the eighteenth 
century. Author of a work on horology. He was the first to point out 
that success in the timing of horizontal watches depends on the correct 
proportioning of all their parts. 

JOINT PUSHER. A small piece of tempered steel wire mounted 
in a wooden handle and used for inserting and removing joint pins. 

JURGENSEN, URBAN. He was born at Copenhagen, Denmark, 
August 5, 1776. His father was a watchmaker to the court, and under 
him Urban learned the art. At the age of twenty-one he visited Neuf- 
chatel, Switzerland, where he remained for eighteen months and after- 
wards resided for six months in Geneva, being constantly occupied with 
mathematical and practical work. He afterwards went to Paris and was 
admitted to the houses of M. Breguet and Ferdinand Berthoud, and for 
some time worked under the immediate instruction of the former. He 
spent some time in London and then returned to Paris, and from there 
went to Geneva and Neufchatel. He returned to Denmark in 1801, and 
was offered a partnership with a very clever artist, M. Etienne Magnin, 
who for some years had enjoyed a royal bounty to make longitude- 
chronometers for the use of ships. Young Jurgensen, however, pre- 
ferred to enter into partnership with his father, and his younger brother, 
Frederick, afterwards court watchmaker, was his first pupil. In 1804 
he compiled a memoir entitled, "On the Art of Watchmaking," or **Rules 
for the Exact Measurement of Time," which was published at royal 
expense. A new and improved edition was published the following year 
in French. In the same year he received the silver medal of the Royal 
Society of Sciences, at Copenhagen, for a treatise entitled, "On the best 




209 Jurgensen. 

mode of making and hardening Watch Springs." He resolved, owing 
to the scarcity of competent help and his own poor health, to remove to 
Switzerland, and accordingly in 1807 he removed to Neufchatel, where 
he remained two years. In 1809 he returned to Denmark. In 1815 he 
was made a member of "The Royal Society of Sciences.'' In 1822 he 
was made superintendent of all chronometers belonging to the Royal 
Navy, and in 1824 he was decorated with the Gold Cross of Dannebrog. 
He died on the 14th of May, 1830, being 53 years old. 

JURGENSEN, JULES. Son of Urban and one of the most noted 
watchmakers of the 19th century. He was 
born at Locle, July 27, 1808, during the tem- 
porary residence of his parents in Switzer- 
land. During his youth he worked under 
tlie immediate instruction of his father, but 
in 1835 he went to Switzerland, and from 
there to Paris and London, where he studied 
under the best masters in physics, mechanics 
and astronomy. Later he established a 
branch of his father's business in Locle and 

devoted his attention to the construction ^^^ ;^ /^^^^^S^^^ 
of pocket chronometers. The result of his 
study and experiments was the celebrated Jules Jurgensen. 

Jurgensen watch of to-day. The last years of his life were spent in 
Geneva and he died December 17, 1877. His son, Jules F. U. Jurgensen, 
succeeded to the business. 

KENDALL, LARCUM. A noted watchmaker of London, who 
constructed a timekeeper on Harrison's principle, which was given to 
Captain Cook, when he commanded the Resolution, in 1776. 

KULLBERG, VICTOR. A prominent horologist and successful 
chronometer maker. He was born at Wisby, on the Island of Gothland, 
in 1824. He went to London in 185 1, where he remained until his death. 
His chronometers stood at the top of the list in the trials from 1880 to 
1890 inclusive. He died July 7, 1890. 

LACQUER. The ordinary lacquer of commerce is composed of 
spirits of wine and clear shellac in the proportion of i oz. of shellac 
to a pint of spirit. Heat should not be applied, but the ingredients 
placed in a glass stoppered bottle and shaken from time to time until the 
shellac is thoroughly dissolved or combined with the spirit. Various 
tints may be given lacquer by adding small quantities of aniline colors, 
oreviously well mixed with water and free from lumps. 




Lange. 210 

LANGE, ADOLPH. Adolph Lange was born in Dresden, in 1815, 
and was apprenticed to a watchmaker of that place. At the expiration 
of his apprenticeship he went to Paris to perfect himself in the higher 
branches of horology. He became the foreman in the celebrated work- 
shop of Winnerl. He later returned to Dresden, where he became the 
partner of his former master. He devoted himself to the manufacture 
of astronomical clocks, chronometers and fine watches, and soon secured 
for himself an enviable reputation. About this time the 
government of Saxony was in search of some means of 
bettering the condition of the inhabitants of the mount- 
ainous districts of Saxony. The condition of these 
people was most pitiable, as for generations they had 
lived there in extreme poverty. Mr. Lange was con- 
fident that if the art of watchmaking was introduced 
Adolph Lange. j^to this region the desired result might be achieved. 
The government looked favorably on his proposition, and in 1845 he, 
with the assistance of the State, established a watchmaker's school 
at Glashutte. The populace did not take kindly to the idea, and 
it was very up-hill work for awhile ; but his efforts were finally crowned 
with success. He taught the youths of the village the art of watchmak- 
ing and installed them in his workshop. In less than two years the first 
watches were marketed, and the success of the enterprise assured. In 
time his pupils became teachers, and gradually, but surely, the art of hor- 
ology gained a foothold, until now nearly ihe entire population of Glas- 
hutte are engaged in horological and kindred pursuits. He died Dec. 5, 
1875, leaving two sons, Richard and Emile, who are still engaged in 
manufacturing fine watches, chronometers and clocks of precision, in 
Glashutte. 

LANTERN PINION. A pinion formed of two circular brass, or 
other metal plates, and connected by means of short steel wires. 

LAP. A disc used in conjunction with a lathe for polishing or cut- 
ting. Laps are made of steel, copper, ivory, etc., and are charged with 
the cutting or polishing compounds. See Diamond Laps. 

LATHE. A mechanical device used for shaping articles by causing 
them to revolve while being brought into contact with cutting tools. 
Those who contemplate buying a lathe will do well to avoid the cheap 
imitations of the American pattern, which are made by irresponsible 
makers in foreign countries, and foisted upon an unsuspecting public, 
and guaranteed true and " as good as the American." Thej' are usually 
nicely finished, but inferior both in material and workmanship, their great- 
est failure being their untruth. If an untrue American lathe, by any 
possibility is allowed to escape the inspector and finds its way upon the 



211 



Lathe. 



market, the manufacturer is only too glad to exchange it for a perfect 
article, for his reputation is at stake ; but who are you going back on in 
the event of one of these cheap imitations proring untrue? There are 
American made lathes upon the market that are as inferior in many- 
respects as the imitations, and the watchmaker will do well to do with- 
out a lathe until such time as he can afford to purchase one of known 




Fig. 191. 

reputation. Among the first class American lathes upon the market 
may be mentioned the Webster-Whitcomb, Fig. 191 ; the Moseley, Fig. 
192 ; the Hopkins, Fig. 193, and the Rivett, Fig. 194. 

An excellent lathe for the heavier work of watchmakers and jewelers, 
such as cannot be performed with satisfaction on the watchmaker's lathe, 
is the No. 4 Barnes, which is shown in Fig. 195. 




Fig. 192. 

It is manufactured by the W. F. & John Barnes Company, Rockford, 
111. For screw cutting, the manufacture of watchmaker's tools, fishing 
reels, repairs on tower clocks, in fact, all the heavier work of the trade, 
it is admirably fitted. 



Lathe. 



212 



The American lathe of to-daj is a marvel of completeness in its parts, 
and how many hours, jea months, of study and experiment have been 
bestow^ed upon it by its projectors and makers to acquire these points of 
utility and excellency. What a vast amount of care has been exercised 
for the production of a perfect lathe! Must this care cease at the mo- 
ment the lathe passes into the hands of the watchmaker? 

It is a very easy matter at any time to wipe off the dust and oil that 
may accumulate, but does this alone constitute due care? There may be 
a nice glass case to cover it and keep off the dust, and a very good idea 
it is, if faithfully used; but if a counter shaft is on the bench, or much 
lathe work is to be done, it soon falls into blissful desuetude, or finishes 
its usefulness by being broken. Then, often, a cloth is wrapped about 
the lathe, which soon gets soiled and looks badly, let alone the poor pro- 
tection it affords. 




Fig. 193. 

Dust is omnipresent and the greatest enemy to all active machinery; 
it insidiously makes its way into every crease and crevice, and if not 
promptly removed will cause untold damage. We cannot get rid of it 
and must (like the industrious housewife) wage a constant warfare 
against it. 

The care necessary to be given to a fine lathe differs from most other 
tools; it is not confined alone to the removal of dust and keeping clean, 
but the fitting properly of the several parts as used. There should be no 
overstraining when tightening screws, chucks, etc., or when fitting 
articles in both wire and wheel chucks, and so on through the list. 

The face of the lathe bed when it comes from the makers is (or should 
be) perfectly true from end to end, in order that head and tail stocks 
will meet on a direct line of centers, even should they be changed end 



213 



Lathe, 



for end, and a good lathe will meet those requirements. Now, it is obvi- 
ous to any thinking mind that if this face becomes injured by neglect, 
whereby the nickling is removed in spots or portions, they will, in all 
probability become rusty ; this rust will then eat away and throw off 
more, and soon the face presents an uneven surface, which will tend to 
destroy the line of centers between head and tail stocks. 

The head stock, usually occupying one position, causes less wear at 
this point or place, while the hand-rest and tail stock are constantly 
being shifted, so where there is more motion or action there must be 




Fig. 194. 

more wear, especially if dust, chips, or grit be allowed to accumulate 
beneath thein, and though the wear is seemingly imperceptible, it never- 
theless is there, and will sooner or later manifest itself, and this is a sig- 
nal thac the level of the bed is becoming impaired, and, necessarily, the 
truth. Thus too much care and attention cannot be exercised in guard- 
ing against chips and dust when sliding hand rest back and forth on the 
bed. 

At the end of the bed, where the tail stock takes position, many watch- 
makers have the tail stock off, and this portion is more exposed to 



Lathe. 214 

atmospheric action, also receiving perspiration from the hands when they 
come in contact. Again, others let the tail stock remain in position, 
only removing when it comes in the way. In the former case, it is well 
to devise some means for the protection of the bed ; this is easily done 
by making a sheath of chamois skin to slip tightly over the bed ; it can 
be removed and replaced readily, and when it becomes soiled, can be 
•washed. 

This sheath should be fully two-thirds the length of bed, or reaching 
from tail end up to hand rest when it is close to head stock. It preserves 
the bed from dampness, which is considerable in some climates, also the 
perspiration of the hand and flying chips and dust. In the second case, 
if the tail stock is allowed to remain on lathe, or, if removed and placed 
on the bench, it is subjected to all the evils the bed is in the former. 




Fig. 195. 

Our opinion is, the tail stock should be kept in its compartment in a 
tight fitting drawer, away from dust and accidental knocks of other tools 
on the bench; the tail spindle not being nickeled, is more liable to rust if 
left exposed, and should be kept wrapped in a sheath of oiled paper. 
This may seem superfluous and too much bother, yet it is taking proper 
care which tells in the end. 

The bottom of tail stock should always be brushed off" before placing 
jn position, not only for its protection, but for fear some particle of grit 
may be adhering, thereby throwing it out of truth, and screwing it down 
tight only adds injury to the lathe if allowed to remain. 

The head stock demands close attention ; the spindle should run freely 
without end shake, and about once a week should be speeded, meanwhile 
administering oil until it leaves the bearings clean, and then wiped off. 
A little oil should be added every day. See that the mouth of the spin- 
dle is kept bright and clean; thrust a strip of cloth clear through spindle 
every now and then, that all dust and dirt may be removed. 

Wire and wheel chucks should often be washed in gasoline to remove 
gummy dirt and oil which is constantly adhering, and it is even well 
each time a chuck is used, to wash off first, then wipe dry. A little dirt 



215 Lepaute. 

on mouth of spindle, or on chuck, often throws it out of truth, and conse- 
quently the article fastened therein also. 

When fitting head or tail stocks, or in fact any attachment, do so care- 
fully. Do not bang it in place as if you held a grudge against it, and 
when in position see that they are tightly screwed in place. 

Having too much end shake on live spindle, especially in soft lathes, 
causes uneven wear in its bearings, besides not being reliable for true 
pivoting or any such work. 

When the cost of a lathe is taken into consideration, it goes to prove 
that it is not easily replaced. Where is the jeweler with a stock of 
goods who would retire without first seeing his valuables were in the 
safe, but how many are there who think of giving this protection to their 
lathes.'* Some do, but the greater per cent do not. "It is a "pious plan" 
to see that the head stock, tail stock, and attachments are in the safe, and 
should a fire break out that endangers the store, and no chance to save it, 
the feeling of satisfaction is great to know the lathe is safe, that is, the 
more expensive parts, for the bed can be purchased at a nominal cost 
compared to the attachments. 

A word about chuck blocks or stands. The best kinds are those made 
to fit in a drawer of the bench and the holes sunk deep enough to let the 
chuck (wire) drop full length, or to the head, the hole being counter- 
sunk to admit the bevel portion. They can easily be picked out with the 
finger nail. Have the block thoroughly soaked with oil. 

To prevent rusting of tools, and especially if the bed shows signs of 
rust spots, here is a good old remedy: Procure some blue ointment, 
spread it on a cloth and rub the tools or lathe briskly, then wipe off with a 
•clean cloth, and wipe dry. This ointment leaves a thin coating of mercury 
which prevents the action of dampness on the tools. This cure need not 
be resorted to more than once a month, and keep ointment away from 
gold cases and watch movements. If you find your lathe bed has got in 
such a condition as to destroy its truth, send it at once to the makers and 
have it put in first-clas* condition. Do not trust it, for the sake of sav- 
ing a little, to some irresponsible firm for repairs. 

LEPAUTE, J. A. One of the most celebrated of French horo- 
logists. He did much to improve his art, especially in regard to turret 
clocks. He was the author of a volume on horology, which in its time 
was a standard authority. He was born at Montmedi in 1709 and died in 
1789. 

LEPINE MOVEMENT. A bar movement, in which the bar sup- 
porting the top pivot of the barrel arbor is straight. Lepine introduced 
his improvements in 1776 and they consisted of the suppression of the 
pillar plate, the fuzee and chain and one of the supports to the barrel 



Le Roy. 216 

arbor. The Lepine family resided at Ferney, near Geneva, where Vol- 
taire established a watch factory. Breguet improved on the Lepine sys- 
tem by causing the mainspring to be wound up at the back of the watch 
through the dome, instead of by a square through the face of the dial. 

LE ROY, JULIEN. A celebrated French horologist. He was the 
inventor of the horizontal mechanism for turret clocks. He introduced 
improvements in nearly all the branches of horology of his day. He 
died in 1759. 

LE ROY, PIERRE. A son of Julien Le Roy and unquestionably 
the greatest of all French horologists. He was born in 1717 and died in 
1785. He was the inventor of the Duplex escapement. 

LESSELS, M. A celebrated German clockmaker who worked for 
a long time with Breguet. He was the maker of a number of excellent 
astronomical clocks for Swiss, German and Russian observatories. He 
died in 1849. 

LEVER ESCAPEMENT.* George Graham, the English horo- 
logist, invenied the anchor deadbeat escapement used in clocks, and from 
it the lever, the favorite watch escapement of to-day: is derived. In 
order to apply this latter escapement (which only allows of very small 
arcs of vibration), to the watch, it was necessary, says Saunier, not only 
to alter its form but also to make the balance indspendent of the motive 
force, except during the actual period of lift. Thomas Mudge satisfied 
these requirements, by producing an escapement in which the two lifts 
were equal and an impulse was given at each vibration of the balance. 

Saunier and other authorities declare that when the modern lever 
escapement is well made in conformity with the principles of mechanicsy 
and the pallets and pivot holes are provided with jewels, it may be con- 
sidered to be the best adapted for ordinary use. 

Britten declares that, although inferior for time keeping to the chrono- 
meter, when made with ordinary care it is so certain in its action that it 
is generally prefered for pocket watches. Its weak point is the necessity 
of applying oil to the pallets. However close the rate of the watch at 
first, the thickening of the oil in the course of time will inevitably affect 
its going. 

The torm of escapement presented in Fig. 198, is known as a right 
angle escapement. The straight line escapement, which is quite a favor- 
ite with Swiss and American watchmakers, is so called because the three 

♦The student will do well to read: The Detached Lever Escapement, by Moritz 
Grossmnnn; Modern Horology in Theory and Practice, by Claudius Saunier; Watch 
and Clock Making, by David Glasgow; The Watch and Clockmaker's Hand Book, by 
F. J. Britten. 



217 Lever Escapements 

centers of the wheel, the pallets and the balance are in a straight line. It 
is claimed that there is less friction and shake on the pivots in the straight 
line than in the right angle form, owing to the direction of the pressures 
neutralizing each other to some extent * 

In America, Switzerland and France, the "clubbed" tooth is preferred 
for escape wheels, that is to saj, a tooth similar to that shown in Fig. 
196, made with a tip of the wheel formed into an inclined plane, thus 
dividing the impulse between the face of the pallets and the wheel teeth. 
Saunier, in comparing the two forms of teeth, says: " An escapement 
with pointed or ratchet teeth has the following objections and advan- 
tages : Both the pitch with the locking face and the drop are very nearly 
doubled; there is therefore an appreciable increase in the resistance 
opposed to unlocking, especially when the oil is at all thick. Out of the 
10° through which the pallet moves, a greater proportion is expended in 
the unlocking. Lastly, the fine pointed tooth must be made of brass, it 
is liable to wear and distortion, and is ill-adapted for retaining oil, which 
must be applied in very small quantities. On the other hand its advan- 
tages consist in: i. The pallets having double width, so that a greater 
quantity of oil is retained on them. 2. The escapement will go for a 
considerable time after the oil has become bad or thickened. Some 
watchmakers, indeed, do not put any oil on either the teeth or pallets 
when the wheel is made of a particular kind of brass, but the point of the 
tooth wears in time, 3. The escapement is more easy of construction. 
When this form is adopted, the escapement can be made with sufficient 
accuracy by ordinary workmen ; for if the planes are inclined to the 
requisite extent, there will be no time lost in the lift. 

As compared with the ratchet toothed wheel, the wheel with clubbed 
teeth possesses the following qualities: It retains the oil better; the 
friction occurs at two points of contact instead of one; the impulse com- 
mences with a shorter lever and is, therefore, more efficient; no wear or 
distortion or variation of the acting surfaces need be feared when the 
wheel is carefully made and of good material ; it is possible, within cer- 
tain limits, to reduce the pitch with the locking faces if necessary, and 
thus, while diminishing the effect of viscosity on these surfaces, to in- 
crease the real lift that corresponds to a given apparent lift. Lastly, the 
drop can be reduced to almost nothing. 

It is undoubtedly true that, as a set off against these advantages, it may 
be objected that this escapement is of a highly scientific character, so that 
its construction is a matter of some delicacy, and requires the skill of a 
first-rate workman. In conclusion, Saunier says, that the advantage is 
on the side of the clubbed tooth. 

♦Saunier does not commit himself on this point; Glasgow and Britten both declare 
that there is no advantage in the straight line, though the former admits that it may 
be more handsome to look at, and the latter that it allows of the poising of the lever 
and pallets with less redundant metal. The principal reason why it is not made in 
Cngland is that with the fuzee movements it is difficult to find room for it. 



Lever Escapement. 



218 




Britten says that, on the other hand, English watchmakers maintain 
that as at some time durini^ each impulse the planes of the wheel and 
pallet nearly coincide, the increased surface then presented to the vary- 
ing influence of the adhesion of the oil is a serious evil. Then with 

clubbed teeth, there is more 
difficulty in satisfactorily re- 
placing a wheel than with 
ratchet teeth, for in the 
former case the planes must 
be of exactly the same angle 
and of the same length in 
the new wheel as in the old 
one. With brass wheels, the 
impulse faces on the wheel 
Fig. 196. get cut into ruts, but the 

Swiss avoid this by using steel wheels, and also much reduce the 
extra adhesion due to increased surface by thinning the impulse 
planes of the teeth. Swiss escapements are, as a rule, commendably 
light, but the levers are disproportionately long. The Germans make 
an escapement in which the whole of the impulse plane is on the 
wheel teeth, the pallets being small round pins, as in Fig. 197 Britten 
thinks this a cheaper and simpler form, but Saunier says of a similar 
escapement, which was proposed by Perron in 1798, that the sim- 
plicity is more apparent than real, for it requires very great care in its 
construction, or otherwise its accuracy cannot be relied upon. 

Britten gives the following very concise description of the action and 
proportion of the escapement: 

ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Fig. 199 shows the most usual form of the lever escapement, in which 
the pallets escape over three teeth of the wheel. A tooth of the escape 
wheel is at rest upon the locking face of the entering left-hand pallet. 
The impulse pin has just 
entered the notch of the lever, 
and is about to unlock the 
pallet. The action of the 
escapement is as follows : The 
balance, which is attached to 
the same staff as the roller, is 
traveling in the direction indi- 
cated by the arrow, which is / / N ^ ^ -^ 
around the roller, with suffi- Fig. 197. 
cient energy to cause the ruby pin to move the lever and pallets far 
enough to release the wheel tooth from the locking face, and allow it to 
enter on the impulse face of the pallet. Directly it is at liberty, the escape 




319 Lever Escapement. 

'wheel, actuated by the mainspring of the watch, moves around the same 
way as the arrow and pushes the pallet out of its path. By the time the 
wheel tooth has got to the end of the impulse face of the pallet, its 
motion is arrested by the exit or right-hand pallet, the locking face of 
which has been brought into position to receive another tooth of the 
wheel. When the pallet was pushed aside by the wheel tooth it carried 
with it the lever, which in its turn communicated a sufficient blow to the 
ruby pin to send the balance with renewed energy on its vibration. So 
that the ruby pin has the double office of unlocking the pallets by giving 
a blow on one side of the notch of the lever, and of immediately receiv- 
ing a blow from the opposite side of the notch. The balance proceeds 
on its excursion, winding up the balance spring as it goes, until its energy 
is expended. After it is brought to a state of rest, its motion is reversed 
by the uncoiling of the balance spring, the ruby pin again enters the 
notch of the lever, but from the opposite direction, and the operation 
already described is repeated. The object of the safety pin is to prevent 
the wheel from being unlocked except when the ruby pin is in the notch 
of the lever. The banking pins keep the motion of the lever within the 
desired limits. They should be placed as shown, where any blow from 
the ruby pin on to the outside of the lever is received direct. They are 
sometimes placed at the tail of the lever, but in that position the banking 
pins receive the blow through the pallet staff pivots, which are liable to 
be broken in consequence. 

PROPORTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

The escape wheel has fifteen teeth, and the distance apart of the 
pallets, from center to center, is equal to 60° of the circumference of the 
wheel. The pallets are planted as close as possible to the wheel, so that 
the teeth of the wheel in passing just clear the belly of the pallets. 
When the tooth is pressing on the locking, the line of pressure should 
pass through the center of the pallet staff. But as the locking faces of 
the two pallets are not equidistant from the center of motion, a tangent 
drawn from the locking corner of one pallet would be wrong for the 
other, and, as a matter of fact, if a diagram is made it will be found that 
even when the pallets are planted as close as possible they are hardly as 
close as they should be for the right-hand pallet. To plant as close as 
possible is, therefore, a very good rule, and is the one adopted by the 
best pallet makers; though in setting out the escapement a chord of the 
width of the pallet is produced to find the center of the staff, as shown 
in Fig. 200. The width of each pallet is made as nearly as possible half 
the distance between one tooth of the escape wheel and the next. As 
the teeth of the wheel must be of an appreciable thickness, and the 
various pivots must have shake, it is not found practicable to get the 
pallets of greater width than 10° of the circumference of the wheel 
instead of 12°, which would be half the distance between one tooth and 



Lever Escapement. 220 

the next. This difference between the theoretical and actual width of 
the pallet is called the drop. The lever is pinned to the pallets, and has 
the same center of motion. The distance between the center of the lever 
and the center of the roller is not absolute. The distance generally pre- 
ferred is a chord of 96° of a circle representing the path of the tips of the 
escape wheel teeth, that is, the distance from the tip of one tooth to the 
tip of the fourth succeeding tooth. The proportion, as it is called, of 
the lever and roller is usually from 3 to i to 3^^ to i. In the former 
case the length of the lever (measured from the center of pallet staff to 
center of the mouth of the notch) is three times the distance of the 
center of the impulse pin from the center of the roller, and in the latter 
case 3!/^ times. The portion of the lever to the left of the pallet staff 
hole acts as a counterpoise, and should really have the metal in it dis- 
posed at as nearly as possible the same distance from the center as that 
in the other end of the lever, though this is rarely the case. 

In this form of the lever escapement, the pallets have not less than 
10° of motion. Of this amount, 2° are used for locking, and the remain- 
der for impulse. The amount of locking is to some extent dependent on 
the size of the escapement. With a large escapement less than 13^°^ 
would suffice, while a small one would require rather more than 2°. 
The quality of the work, too, is an element in deciding the amount of 
locking. The lighter the locking the better, but it must receive every 
^^^^_„...-.______^_^^^^ tooth of the wheel safely, and where 

'IP ^^ "I all the parts are made with care the 

I ^^ y / escapement can be made with a very 

\ \ C / light locking. 

>— -^ \/ Presuming that the staff hole is 

Fig. 198. correctly drilled with relation to the 

planes, a rough rule used for testing 10° pallets is that a straight edge 
laid on the plane of the entering pallet should point to the locking cor- 
ner of the exit pallet, as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 198. But 
this is clearly only an approximation, for any variation in the amount 
allowed for locking alters the direction of the planes. 

When, from setting the hands of a watch back, or from a sudden jerk, 
there is a tendency for the pallets to unlock, the safety pin butts against 
the edge of the roller. It will be observed that when the ruby pin unlocks 
the pallets, the safety pin is allowed to pass the roller by means of the 
crescent which is cut out of the roller opposite the ruby pin. The teeth 
of the escape wheel make a considerable angle with a radial line (24°), sa 
that only their tips touch the locking faces of the pallets. The locking 
faces of the pallets, instead of being curves struck from the center of 
motion of the pallets, as would be otherwise the case, are cut back at an 
angle so as to interlock with the wheel teeth. The locking face forms 
an angle of 6° or 8° with a tangent to a circle representing the path of 
the locking corner. This is done so that the safety pin shall not drag on 



221 



Lever Escapement. 



ENGLISH LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 



C 


o 

a. 


u 


5 


O 


u* 


X w 




Fig. 199. 



Lever Escapement. 222 

the edge o£ the roller, but be drawn back till the lever touches the bank- 
ing pin. When the operation of setting the hands back is finished, or the 
other cause of disturbance removed, the pressure of the wheel tooth on 
the locking face of the pallet draws the pallet into the wheel as far as 
the banking pin will allow. The amount of this " run " should not be 
more than sufficient to give proper clearance between the safety pin and 
the roller, for the more the run, the greater is the resistance to unlock, 
ing. This rule is sometimes sadlj transgressed, and occasionally the 
locking is found to be, from excessive run, almost equal in extent to the 
impulse. It will generally be found that in these cases the escapement 
is so badly proportioned that the extra run has had to be given to secure 
a sound safety action. In common watches the safety action is a fre- 
quent source of trouble. The more the path of the safety pin intersects 
the edge of the roller, the sounder is the safety action, and if the inter, 
section is small the safety pin is likely to jamb against the edge of the 
roller, or even to pass it altogether. With an ordinary single roller 
escapement a sound safety action cannot be obtained with a less balance 
arc than 33° ; 10° pallets with one degree of movement added for run, 
and with a lever and roller of 3 to i, give a balance arc of 33° — that 
is to say, the balance in its vibration is freed from the escapement 
except during 33°, when the impulse pin is in contact with the lever. 
Even with a balance arc of 33° the roller must be kept small in the 
following way to ensure soundness of the safety action. The hole for 
the ruby pin must not be left round. After it is drilled, a punch of 
the same shape as the ruby pin — that is, with one third of the diame- 
ter flattened off— should be inserted, and the edge of the roller, where 
the crescent is to be formed, beaten in. By this means the roller can 
be turned down small enough to get a sufficient intersection for the 
safety pin. 

It is useful in estimating the balance arc of a watch, to remember 
if it has a three-armed balance that 30° is one-fourth of the distance 
between two arms. With a compensation balance a third of the dis- 
tance between two of the quarter screws is 30°. 

A round ruby pin, although it is sometimes used in common watches, 
gives a bad action and necessitates a very large balance arc. 

Fig. 200 is appended as a guide to students in setting out the escape- 
ment. A circle representing the extreme diameter of the escape wheel 
is taken as a basis, and on the left of the center line is set off, by 
means of a protractor, the middle of one pallet (30°) and its width 
(10°). The chord of this arc of 10° is then produced till it cuts the 
center line, and this intersection is taken as the center of the pallet 
staff. From the pallet-staff center curves, A and B, (representing the 
paths of the pallet corners,) are drawn. The amount of locking C 
(say 2°) and impulse D (say 9°) are set off from the chord of the left- 
hand pallet. The impulse plane is traced through the intersection of 



223 



Lever Escapement. 




-''^^•' 









Lever Escapement. 224 

the angular lines with the curves A and B, and the line of the plane 
produced toward the center of the staff as shown. From the center 
of the staff is described a circle just touching the line so produced. 
The impulse plane of the other pallet forms a tangent to this circle. 
In this position of the pallets, a line drawn from the locking corner 
of the left-hand pallet to form an angle of 12° with the radial line 
from the center of the wheel, will be required to show the locking 
face of the pallet, and a similar line forming 3° will answer for the 
locking face of the right-hand pallet. Mark off the center of the roller 
(E), and take, say, one-fourth of the distance between this center and 
the center of the pallet staff for the position of the center of the im- 
pulse pin, and describe the arc F to represent its path. The line G, 
forming with the center line running through the roller an angle equal 
to half the total angle of the motion of the pallets, or 53^2°, will represent 
the center of the lever. The wheel teeth are set back about 24° from a 
radial line, so as to bear on their points only, and the rim of the wheel 
extends to about three-fourths of the whole radius. The remaining parts 
may be readily filled in from the foregoing remarks on the proportion of 
the escapement, and a study of Fig. 199. 

DOUBLE ROLLER ESCAPEMENT. — THE HORN OF THE LEVER. 

Low-angled pallets, says Britten (i. e. pallets having but little motion), 
and small balance arcs are preferred for fine watches; the low-angle pal- 
lets as being less affected by changes in the condition of the oil which is 
used to lubricate the faces of the pallets than when the motion is greater, 
and the small balance arc because it allows the balance to be more per- 
fectly detached from the escapement. With a double roller escapement, 
pallets with from 8" to 9° of motion are genei-ally used, with a lever and 
roller to give a balance arc of from 28° to 32°. With low-angled pallets, 
and less than 30° of balance arc, a different arrangement than the usual 
upright pin in the lever must be made for the safety action. A second 
roller, not much more than one-half the diameter of the one in which the 
impulse pin is fixed, is mounted on the balance-staff for the purpose 
and a small gold finger, projecting far enough to reach the edge of the 
smaller roller, is screwed to the lever. The safety roller should not be 
less than half the diameter of the impulse roller, for the smaller the 
safety roller, the farther the safety finger enters the crescent before the 
ruby pin enters the notch of the lever; and, as directly the safety finger 
enters the crescent, the impulse pin must be within the horn of the lever 
the smaller the safety roller, the longer must be the horn. Then, if the 
horns are excessively long, the extent of the free vibration of the balance 
is curtailed, because the ruby pin touches the outside of the lever sooner. 
It will be seen that in the single roller escapement (Fig. 201) the safety 
pin does not enter the crescent before the ruby pin enters the notch, 
and, therefore, in the single roller escapement the lever really requires 



225 



Lever Escapement. 




but the smallest possible amount of horn. Fig. 201 shows the double 
roller arrangement. Here it will be seen that the safety finger enters 
the crescent some time before the ruby pin gets to the notch. During 
this interval, should the hands of the watch be set back, the pallets could 
not trip, for the horn of the lever would be caught on the ruby pin. I 

have tried to explain this 
fully, because double 
roller escapements occa- 
sionally fail to give satis- 
faction owing to the , 
lever having insufficient 
horn. On the other 
hand, the levers of single 
roller escapements, 
where scarcely any horn 
is required, are often 
Fig. 201. made with long ones. 

Besides getting a sound safety action with small balance arc, the dou- 
ble roller has three other advantages, (i) The impulse is given more 
nearly on the line of centers, and consequently with less engaging fric- 
tion. (2) The safety roller being of a lesser diameter, the safety finger 
when in contact with it offers less resistance to the motion of the balance; 
and (3) the requisite amount of shake between the safety roller and 
banking pins is obtained with less run on the pallets. Double roller 
escapements are sometimes seen with pallets having 10° of motion, and 
even more, and with the safety roller nearly as large as the impulse 
one. An escapement made in this way really appears to lose most of 
the advantages of the extra roller. On the other hand, low-angle pallets 
are sometimes used with a long lever to get increased balance arc. This 
also is objectionable, for the pallets must have more draw to pull the 
longer lever up to the banking, and more draw means harder unlocking. 
It is really only to watches of a high character throughout that double 
roller escapements with low angle pallets and small balance arcs should 
be applied. For the ordinary run of work, the single roller escapement 
with 11° pallets and a balance arc of from 36° to 40° is well suited. 

SIZE OF THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

Lever escapements are classed, says Britten, into the following sizes: 
No. o in which the escape wheel is .18.1; of an inch in diameter, 

I 

2 

4 
6 

8 
10 
12 



.205 


(( ( 


.225 


(( ( 


•245 


i( ( 


.2015 


(I ( 


285 


U (( 


•295 


(( (1 


305 


t( (1 



Lever Escapement. 326 

No. I is the smallest and No. lo the largest size used in the ordinary 
run of work. The practice of J. F. Cole was to have the escape wheel 
three-sevenths of the diameter of the balance, but there is no strict rule 
for the size of an escapement to a watch, though there has been a dispo- 
sition of late years to use smaller escapements than formerly, as they are 
found to yield better results. In course of time a ridge is formed at the 
beginning of the impulse planes of the pallets, where the wheel teeth fall. 
This ridge is more marked and farther along the impulse plane when 
there is much drop and the escape wheel is large and heavy, because the 
inertia of the wheel which increases in proportion to its weight and 
the square of its diameter, is so great that the balance after unlocking^ 
the pallets, carries them farther before the wheel acquires sufficient 
velocity to overtake them. Undue shake of the ruby pin in the notch 
will also cause this ridge to be accentuated. The practice of some of the 
best London makers is, for 6 and 8 sized movements. No. 2 escapement; 
for lo and i2 sized movements, No. 4 escapement; for 14 and 16 sized 
movements, No. 6 escapement; for 18 and 20 sized movements, No, 8 
escapement. Many manufacturers confine themselves to two sizes. 
*' two's" for repeaters and ladies, and " sixes " for gentlemen's watches, 
A Coventry will be found usually to have a larger escapement than a 
London watch of the same size. 

The escape wheel is of hard, well hammered brass; the pallets are of 
steel (the practice of rolling the pallet steel to harden it is not a good 
one, as there is danger of magnetizing it in the operation), wider than the 
wheel, with the acting parts of ruby in the best, and garnet in the com- 
moner escapements. The pallets are slit longitudinally, and the stones 
fixed in with shellac. The Swiss generally insert the stones across the 
pallets so that they are visible. The impulse planes are curved so as to 
present a smaller surface to the wheel. The ruby pin is fixed in the 
roller with shellac; the safety pin of gold, and the banking pins of brass. 
Non-tnagnetizable watches have the lever and pallets of some other 
metal than steel, generally aluminium bronze. 

in a good lever escapement all the moving parts are extremely light. 

In making a new lever it is well to start with it full long, because a 
deep notch is much easier to polish than a shallow one. When the 
notch is finished the horns can be filed off as required. 

TWO PIN ESCAPEMENT. 

As Britten has pointed out in the action of the escapement, the ruby 
pin performs the double office of unlocking the pallets by giving a blow 
on one side of the notch of the lever, and of immediately receiving a blow 
from the opposite side of the notch. George Savage, of London, saw 
there was a loss of power consequent on this double duty, and also in 
the unlocking action taking place before the line of centers of the lever 
and roller, and with a view to avoid this, introduced the escapement 



227 



Lever Escapement. 

shown In Fig. 202. He reversed the order of things by cutting a small 
notch in the roller, and placing a pin in the lever, in lieu of the ruby 
pin m the roller, which also answered the purpose of the guard pin To 
effect the unlocking, he placed two small pins in the roller in such 
positions that one of them begins to unlock just before crossing the line 
of centers. By the time the unlocking is finished, the pin in the lever is 
drawn into the notch and gives the first portion of the impulse. It then 
leaves the notch, and the impulse is completed by the horns of the lever 
striking the second small pin in the roller, which has nearly or quite 
reached the line of centers by this time. 



Fig. 202. 
In order to get the safety pin well into the notch, says Britten, this 

tTonTbT'T?"',"' "'"'^^ '-'^^"^ 12° to 15= of motion, which is objec- 
lonable, and the lever and roller action is besides a very delicate job, and 
fails ifnot thoroughly done; so that, although the idea is taking, this 
form of the escapement has never come much into use, and when it is 
made one wide stone is generally substituted for the two pins in the 
roller. ^ 

• ^^u ""!°'^^"- "^^'"^'- the line oi centers is also accomplished in what 
IS called the anchor or dovetail escapement, in which the rubv pin is 
wider than usual, and of a dovetail form. It is open to the objection 
h.t, on account of the increased width of the impulse stone and of the 
lever banking will occur with a smaller vibration of the balance than 
with the usual form. 

RESILIENT ESCAPEMENTS. 

A watch balance in general use, says Britten, rarely vibrates more 
than a turn and a half, that is, three-quarters of a turn each way yet 
occasionally, from pressing on the key after the watch is wound in go'ing- 
barrel work, sudden movements of the wearer, or other cause of disturb- 
ance, the balance will swing round till the impulse pin knocks the 



Lever Escapement. 228 

<?«/5z^^ of the lever, if this banking is violent, the timekeeping of the 
watch is deranged, and a broken pivot may also result if the pivots are 
small. To obviate the evil of such banking, various plans have been 
tried. The most usual is to make the banking pins yield to undue pres- 
sure, and allowr the ruby pin to pass tlie lever, the wings of which are 
omitted. Mr, J. F. Cole devised a resilient escapement without any 
banking pins, in which the teeth of the escape wheel were so formed as 
to resist the entrance of the pallet into the wheel more than was required 
for ordinary locking. In the event of overbanking, the pallet compelled 
the escape wheel to recoil, so that the mainspring was really utilized as 
spring banking. But in the use of any of these resilient arrangements 
there is a danger of "setting." When the banking is so violent that the 
ruby pin drives the lever before it, all is well, but it is sure to happen 
sometimes, that just as the ruby pin is passing the lever its motion is 
exhausted, and it jams agains*^ the point of the lever and stops the watch. 
In a recent arrangement Mr. Schoof claims to have overcome this ten- 
dency to set by using very iveak spring bankings. Another objection to 
spring bankings is that in their recoil they are likely to drive the safety 
pin against the edge of the roller. 

PALLETS WITH EQUIDISTANT LOCKINGS. 

The drawing. Fig. 199, shows the pallets at an equal distance from 
their center of motion, and they are generally made so. But then, 
although the impulse planes are equal, the locking faces are not the 
same distance from the center, and the locking resistance is therefore 
unequal. Pallets are occasionally made having the lockings equidistant. 
Although advocated by Grossman and other authorities, they are but 
seldom used. The action of the wheel tooth on the impulse plane of the 
entering pallet before the line of centers is an engaging action, and on 
the exit pallet after the line of centers a disengaging action. The fric- 
tion is therefore greater on the entering pallet, and when an escapement 
sets on one impulse face, it is nine cases out of ten, the impulse face of 
the entering pallet. From this it is argued by some that if either pallet 
should be placed further from the center of motion it should not be the 
exit, but the entering pallet, so as to give it a more favorable leverage 
wherewith to encounter the greater friction which undoubtedly exists. 
But there is really no advantage in the longer arm, for it has to be 
pushed through a greater distance by the wheel tooth than the shorter 
one. Arrange the length of the pallet arms how you will, you get but 
the force of the wheel passing through half the distance between two 
teeth. As far as the relative adhesion of the oil goes, the advantage is 
with the shorter arm. But the chief objection to the equidistant lock- 
ings is that with them the leaving corner of the exit pallet dips further 
into the wheel than with circular pallets, thereby requiring more drop to 
give the requisite freedom. Britten gives the following hints on the 



229 Lever Escapement, 

EXAMINATION OF THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

See that the balance staff is perfectly upright. See that the wheel is 
perfectly true on edge and on face, and that the teeth are equally divid- 
ed and smooth ; also by gently turning the wheel backwards, see that the 
pallets free the backs of the teeth. If the wheel is out of truth, it must 
be set up in the lathe and re-bored. It can be fixed either with shellac, or 
in a brass sink bored out the exact size to receiv e it. If the divisions are 
unequal, or the wheel has some thick teeth, it should be discarded. It 
useless to attempt to make the wheel right, and to reduce the corners of 
the pallet to free the wheel is simply to spoil the escapement for the sake 
of the wheel. At the same time, it must be left to the operator to judge 
whether the amount of the inaccuracy is serious. The whole affair is so 
minute that no rule can be given. 

Is the wheel the right size.-* If the lockings are too light, and the 
greater part of the shake inside, the wheel is too small, and should be 
replaced by one larger. Before removing the wheel, gently draw the 
balance around until the point of the tooth is exactly on the locking cor- 
ner, and see if there is sufficient shake. If not, it will be prudent to have 
the new wheel with the teeth a little straighter than the old ones. If 
the lockings are too deep and most of the drop outside, the wheel is too 
large and should be topped * 

The wheel is so fragile that care is required in topping, which is done 
by revolving it in the turns against a diamond or sapphire file. A brass 
collet is broached to fit friction-tight on one of the runners of a depth 
tool; one side of this collet is then filed away, leaving sufficient sub- 
stance to avoid bursting into the hole. On this flat a small piece of sap- 
phire file is attached with shellac, taking care that the face of the file h 
parallel to the center of the runner. The escape wheel on its pinion, with a 
ferrule attached, is placed in the centers of the depth X.oo\ further from 
the adjusting screw, and the collet and file on one of the opposite cen- 
ters, and that center fixed firmly by its clamping screw. A very- 
light hair bow is used to rotate the pinion, and the depth tool laid on its 
side on the work board — the tool being closed by its screw until the teeth 
of the wheel nearly touch the surface of the file; now if a slight pres- 
sure is made by the fingers on the uppermost limb of the tool, at the 
same time rotating the wheel by the bow, the spring of the tool will 
allow the teeth to be brought into contact very slightly and without 
fear of bending the teeth; the wheel can be reduced as much as is. 
necessary. 

If the wheel is the right size and there is no shake (which try as before 
directed), the discharging corner of the pallets may be rounded off by 

♦In plantingr the wheel and pallets it is always best to err, if at all, by making- 
them too deep rather than too light. If they are a shade deep, topping the wheel 
soon puts matters right. 



Lever Escapement. 230 

means of a diamond file, if they are of garnets. If they are of ruby, 
they may be held against an ivory mill charged with diamond powder. 
If the lockings are too light, and there is but little shake, they may be 
made safe by polishing away the locking face a sufficient quantity. If 
•one locking is right and one is too light, the one that is too light may be 
made safe by polishing away the locking face as before, or the pallet may 
be warmed and the stone brought out a bit. The locking faces of the 
pallets should be sufficiently undercut to draw the lever to the banking 
pins without hesitation. If they require alteration in this respect, polish 
away the upper part of the locking faces so as to give more draw, leaving 
the locking corner quite untouched. But proceed with great care, lest 
in curing this fault the watch sets on the locking, as small watches with 
light balances are very liable to do. If a watch sets on the lockings, or 
on one of them, the locking face or faces may be polished away so as to 
give less draw — i. e. have most taken off the corner of the locking. If 
the watch sets on the impulse, the impulse face may be polished to a less 
angle, if the locking is sufficiently deep to allow of it. For it must be 
remembered that in reducing the impulse, the locking of the opposite 
pallet will also be reduced. In fact, the greatest caution should be exer- 
cised in making any alteration in the pallets. 

Sometimes in new escapements, the oil at the escape wheel teeth will 
be found to thicken rapidly through the pallet cutting the wheel, show- 
ing that one or both corners of the pallets are too sharp. If ruby, the 
corner may be polished off with a peg cut to the shape of a pivot polisher, 
and a little of the finest diamond powder in oil; if garnet, diamantine on 
a peg will do it very well. Great care should be taken to remove every 
trace of the polishing material, or the wheel may become charged with it. 

See that the pivots are well polished, of proper length to come through 
the holes, and neither bull-headed or taper. A conical pivot should be 
conical only as far as the shoulder; the part that runs in the hole must 
be perfectly cylindrical. They must have perceptible and equal side 
shake,or, if any difference be made, the pallet pivots should Htthe closest. 
Both balance staff pivots should be of exactly the same size. The end 
shakes should all be equal. Bad pivots, bad uprighting, excessive and 
unequal shake in the pivots, are responsible for much of tlie trouble ex- 
perienced in position timing. With unequal end shakes the pallet depth 
is liable to be altered owing to the curved form of the pallet faces. The 
action of the escapement will also be affected if the end shakes are not 
equal, by a banking pin slightly bent, a slight inaccuracy in uprighting, 
and other minute faults. The infinitesimal quantity necessary to derange 
the wheel and pallet action may be gathered from the fact that a differ- 
ence of .002 of an inch is quite enough to make a tripping pallet depth 
safe, or correct depth quite unsound. 

When the wheel and pallets are right, see that the impulse pin is in a 
line with an arm of the balance, and proceed to try if the lever is fixed 



231 Lever Escapement. 

in the correct position with relation to the pallets. Gently move the 
balance around until the tooth drops off the pallet. Observe the position 
of the balance arm, and see if it comes the same distance on the other 
side of the pallet hole when the other pallet falls off. If not, the pins 
connecting pallet and lever are generally light enough to allow of the 
lever being twisted. When the lever is right with relation to the pallets, 
see that the pallets are quite firmly fixed to the lever, and that the lever 
and pallets are perfectly in poise. This latter is an essential point in a 
fine watch to be tuned in positions, but it is often neglected. 

See that the escapement is in beat. When the balance spring is at 
rest, the impulse pin should be on the line of centers, that is, in the mid- 
dle of its motion. If this is not so, the spring should be drawn through 
or let out from the stud, if the position of the index allows; if it does not, 
the roller may be twisted around on the staff in the direction required. 

Is the roller depth right.'' If the safety pin has insufficient freedom 
while there is enough run, the roller is probably planted too deep. On 
the other hand, if it is found that, while the safety pin has plenty of freedom, 
there is no shake between the bankings, the roller depth is probably too 
shallow. When the impulse pin is led around, there should be an equal 
clearance all around the inside of the horn, and the pin must fall safely 
into the notch. If it binds in the horn and bottoms in the notch, it is too 
deep, and, on the other hand, if with excessive clearance in the horn, the 
pin when it falls does not pass well into the notch, it is too shallow. The 
readiest method of altering, is to warm the roller, remove the impulse 
pin, and using a to-and-fro motion with a wire and oil-stone dust, draw 
the hole in the required direction. If the pin is deep in the notch and 
too tight in the roller to give a little, it should be removed and flattened 
off a trifle more. If too shallow, a triangular pin, or one of some other 
shape, with the point of contact more forward, can generally be substi- 
tuted by polishing out the hole towards the crescent. If not, the staff 
hole in the lever may be drawn to allow of shifting the lever sufficiently; 
or the recesses for the jewel settings of the balance staff pivots may be 
scraped away on one side and rubbed over on the other to suit. See, as 
it passes around, that the impulse pin is free when in the notch. 

Just as the safety pin is about to enter the crescent, the impulse pin 
must be well inside of the horn. In the single roller escapement a very 
little horn is required, unless the crescent has been made of an unneces- 
sary width. In very common work one occasionally sees a flat filed on 
the edge of the roller instead of a crescent. There is no excuse for such 
a piece of bungling. 

A fault occasionally met with is that the impulse pin after leaving the 
notch just touches on some part of the horn in passing out. If a wedge 
of cork is placed under the lever, so that the lever moves stiffiy, it can be 
readily seen whether or not the impulse pin is free to leave the notch and 
is free all around the horn when the wheel tooth drops on the locking. 



Lever Escapement, 233 

See to the safety action. When the tooth drops on to the locking, the 
safety pin should be just clear of the roller. If it is not clear, the edge 
of the roller should be polished down until it is right. If there is more 
than clearance, the safety pin must be brought closer to the roller. See, 
upon pressing the safety pin against the roller, that the tooth does not 
leave the locking, and that the impulse pin is free to enter the notch 
without butting on the horn of the lever; also that the safety action is 
sound, so that the pin is in no danger of passing the roller. If the action 
is not sound, the diameter of the roller should be reduced and the safety 
pin brought towards it sufficiently to get a sound action, if it can be done; 
but if the escapement has been so badly proportioned as not to allow of 
a sound action being obtained in this way, the pin must be shifted for- 
ward and the bankings opened to allow more run. 

See if the banking pins are so placed as to allow of an equal run on 
each side. If not they should not be bent, for with bent banking pins a 
difference in the end shakes of the pivots will cause a difference in the 
run. The banking pin allowing of the most run should be removed, 
and the hole broached out to receive a larger pin. 

A Lever Escapement Fault. In the lever escapement there 
are several faults that frequently give trouble, and which are not 
readily seen nor understood. One of the number is what is called mis- 
matched pallets and escape w^heel. In the club tooth this error is very 
fatal to good rate and is about as represented in Fig. 204. The action 
between the tooth and the pallet is one attended with friction, under the 
most favorable circumstances, and the aim should be to keep the friction 

at the lowest and to maintain it constant. 
With the escapement at its best the friction is 
very little, but to maintain it constant is of the 
greatest importance. Fully one-third of the 
low-priced watches have some escapement 
fault that renders their performance much 
below the normal standard of the grade, and 
Fig. 203. Fig. 204. helps largely to shorten their career and make 

it, while it does last, a terror to the innocent wearer and repairer. Now, 
to thoroughly explain the fault above mentioned it is necessary to first, 
state it and then call attention to the illustrations. This error is the rela- 
tive pitch or slant of the impulse plane of the tooth and the pallet. When 
in a perfect relation, as in Fig. 203, the tooth gets onto the impulse plane 
of the pallet, with its front corner touching the pallet's plane and so 
moves about two-thirds of the way across, with only the corner touch- 
ing, then as it proceeds, the whole face of the tooth touches the plane, 
shortly after the front corner has left the plane, and thus the escapement 
is made. With the faulty escapement, as in Fig. 204, the pallet's front 
corner gets onto the impulse plane of the tooth and thus proceeds a part 




233 Locking. 

of the way before the correct relation begins. Now when, as in the first 
case, the tooth rides over the pallet with its corner, the corner of the 
tooth cannot cut the plane of the pallet, as the metal will not act on the 
stone; but as in the second case, when the pallet's corner gets onto the 
plane of the tooth and so proceeds, the pallet corner will wear the face 
of the tooth, as the stone will cut the soft metal. This fault is present in 
a more or less degree in many escapements with the club tooth and when 
a watch gives trouble by failing to keep its rate after cleaning, as soon 
as the oil is the least dry on the pallets, it argues that this fault may be 
looked for. The illustrations of the two actions are purposely exagger- 
ated to clearly illustrate the points under treatment. 

LOCKING. That portion of the pallet on which the escape wheel 
teeth drop. 

MAGNETISM. The agent or force in nature which gives rise to 
the phenomena of attraction, polarity, etc., exhibited by the loadstone,, 
magnet, etc. A watch will become magnetized by too close proximity 
to a powerful magnetic field, such as is developed in a dynamo electro 
machine, for producing electric light, or by coming in contact with an 
ordinary magnet, as well as other sources of magnetic or electro-mag- 
netic influences, and by these means all its steel parts become perma- 
nent magnets. Each piece of steel has then assumed definite polarity, so- 
that if it is balanced on a point like a compass, it will, like the latter, in- 
dicate the direction of the earth's magnetic poles. The influence of these 
separate magnets, one on the other, and the influence of the earth's mag- 
netism on the different parts, become very potent disturbers of time, 
keeping. Hairsprings, balances, and other small steel parts often become 
magnetized through being handled with magnetized tweezers or being 
placed near or in contact with other steel tools that have been magne- 
tized. 

Mr. B. Frese exemplifies the influence of the separate magnets pro- 
duced in a watch by its parts becoming magnetized as follows: if we take 
two compasses and place them side by side, so that the two bearing 
points of the needles will form a right angle to their direction, neither of 
them will show any variation from their natural position or the position 
they are compelled to take by the influence of the earth's magnetism ; 
but by moving one a little to the North or South of this position, we no- 
tice a deflection in both, which is caused by the poles of unequal names 
having been brought near to each other. Besides this main disturbing 
influence upon accurate time keeping, we must also consider the disturb- 
ance caused by direct attraction, which takes place by two magnetized 
parts when their equal, as well as their unequal, polarities come close to- 
gether, but when two extremities of equal polarity come close together 
or in contact, the stronger magnetized piece will cause the weaker to- 



Magnetism. 234 

assume its own polarity, so that when the South polarity of a strongly 
magnetized piece is brought in contact with the South polarity of a 
weaker, the South of the latter will be changed to North, and the North 
to South when the two North polarities have been in contact. The larg- 
est steel parts in a watch are the mainspring and the case springs, and 
these are, therefore, the most potent to cause a disturbance in a steel or 
compensation balance, aside from the earth's magnetism; the balance 
being the medium by which nearly all the disturbance is caused, as dur- 
ing its vibrations it makes different positions to the polarities of the other 
steel parts, as well as the earth's polarities, which is the greatest dis- 
turber, aside from the mainspring, the polarities of which change in rela- 
tion to the balance as the watch runs down. The force one magnetized 
piece exerts on the other multiplies with [decreased distance. The fork, 
pallets and 'scape wheel are too small in bulk to cause much disturbance, 
either by direct attraction or directive force, unless they are charged to 
saturation, which very seldom occurs. If a magnetized balance is placed 
on a poising tool, with the staff in North and South direction, it will 
appear out of poise, caused by the earth's magnetism, and will maintain 
its North polarity uppermost. If it is placed in an East direction, it will 
no longer allow the North polarity to remain uppermost, but will cause 
the same to move toward the North and indicate the magnetic dip, the 
amount of which varies in the different latitudes of the globe. If we 
place the balance in a horizontal position, its north and South polarities 
will coincide with those of a compass, showing that if the balance were 
the only part magnetized in a watch, that magnetism causes more com- 
plicated variations than a balance out of poise to the same extent. That 
trying to poise a magnetized balance would be useless, is self-evident, for 
the reason that in a horizontal and North and Souih position, no equi- 
librum can be obtained. The influence of magnetized parts that do 
change position in a watch, is a constant one, as long as the size ®f 
vibration is maintained, and is, therefore, not the cause of serious dis- 
turbance. The substituting of new case springs will, therefore, be of 
little or no benefit. 

To detect magnetism, place a pocket compass upon a show case, and 
place the watch to be operated upon on the table and close to the com. 
pass, and to the East and West of it. Before starting the test, stop the 
watch, and keep it from running by inserting a wedge made from a thin 
slip of paper beneath the balance. Turn the compass box around until 
the needle points to zero, before approaching the watch to it. Having 
placed the watch to the East or West of the compass, proceed to turn 
the movement, presenting first one figure of the dial and then another to 
the compass, and at the same time noting the deflection of the compass 
needle. Note whether the deflection is towards the East or West, i. e., 
whether it repels or attracts the needle. If the movement is not mag 
netized, the compass needle will remain stationary. If it is magnetized, 



235 Magnetism. 

the needle will be deflected, and by noting tne spot, you can very readily 
detect the magnetized part. Magnetism may be removed from small 
steel parts by placing them in the lathe and revolving them rapidly, and 
at the same time approaching them with a horseshoe magnet, and then 
gradually withdrawing the magnet. It is not good policy, however, to 
place any magnetized piece in your lathe, as you are liable to magnetize 
chucks, and they will cause you no end of trouble in the future. De- 
magnetizers are now to be purchased so cheaply that it will scarcely pay 
you to experiment with home made substitutes. See Detnagnetizer. 

To Demagnetize Watches. As watches only become magnetized 
by being brought into too close contact with magnets, dynamos, and the 
like, it is an utter waste of time to try and demagnetize them by applying 
heat or cold, or rubbing on decoctions of various kinds. Magnetic 
influence is the only remedy for the evil. The application of the remedy 
is effected in various ways. If we suspect that a watch is magnetized, 
the first thing to do is to prove it. It is well to try all watches for mag- 
netism before starting on repairs, and this can be done in the presence of 
the customer. Place a fair sized pocket compass on, or gummed to the 
under side of your show case glass, in such a position that when at rest 
the needle will point to O. Place the watch a little to the East or West 
of the compass and revolve it showly, watching the needle of the com- 
pass to see if the needle is deflected. Be careful to keep the centers of 
the watch and compass at a given distance apart. If magnetized, the 
needle of the compass will deflect to the right and left as the watch is 
revolved. Note the deflection at a given point, and then proceed to 
revolve. In this way you can closely approximate the location of the 
affected part. By taking the movement apart you can in the same man- 
ner readily determine the affected part or parts, and they can be demag- 
netized without much diflSculty. All of the steel parts of a watch, except 
the balance and spring, can be readily demagnetized in the following 
manner: Place a bar magnet upon a piece of white paper, previously 
marked with lines, say one-eighth of an inch apart. Lift the affected 
part with a pair of brass or non-magnetic tweezers, and approach one end 
of it within one-eighth of an inch of the magnet, then reverse and 
approach the opposite end to within one-fourth of an inch ; reverse and 
approach first end to within three-eighths of an inch, and so on until you 
reach a distance where the magnet exerts no influence. Test your piece, 
as previously described, with a compass, and if the cure is not effected, 
repeat the operation. The circular form of the balance renders it some- 
what more difficult to treat successfully, and it is best demagnetized as 
follows: Fasten the balance on a large cork, say from one and a half to 
two inches in diameter, by means of a small brass pin bent at right 
angles, and mount the cork in j'our lathe and revolve. Take a ten-inch 
compound magnet and approach it as closely to the balance as possible, 



Mainspring. 236 

and then gradually withdraw the magnet, keeping the balance revolving 
meanwhile, thus presenting every portion of it to the influence of the 
magnetic force. In some cases it will be found impossible to demagnet- 
ize the balance, although the operation may be repeated many times. A 
close examination and test of the balance by means of a compass will. 
show that each arc of the balance has a positive and negative end, and 
the cross-bar will be found in the same condition. Under such cir- 
cumstances it is absolutely unnecessary to thoroughly magnetize the 
balance by applying it to the magnet. You can demagnetize it, as pre- 
viously described, without difficulty. It is advisable not to use your reg- 
ular lathe in this operation, but rather to use some old lathe, or a poliGh- 
ing lathe will be found very desirable. See Demagnetizer. 

MAINSPRING. The ribbon of steel which serves to produce the 
motive power for a watch, chronometer, or clock. It is said to be the 
invention of Peter Hele, aclockmaker of Nuremberg, about the year 
1500. 

It would appear that the mainspring, when first applied to the watch, 
was not enclosed in a barrel, but the outer end of the spring was bent into 
the form of a hook and fixed to a winding arbor, together with a ratchet 
wheel and click. A guard was attached to one of the plates in order to 
check the outer coil of the spring and prevent it expanding too far. The 
inner end was made fast to the axis of the great wheel, consequently it 
was wound up from the center. The re-expansion set the train in 
motion. 

The motive force due to the tension of a spring is more or less vari- 
able. The causes of this want of uniformity, says Saunier, are as follows : 
The elastic reaction of a spring becomes greater as the spring is further 
wound up. A metallic blade is very rarely homogeneous, and worked 
with sufficient care to avoid different parts being of variable strength. 
Its energy alters with time dependent on the duration and intensity of 
the flexure, and this change nearly always occurs irregularly throughout 
its length. Its elastic force diminishes slightly on elevating the tempera- 
ture, and lastly, a spring rubs against the bottom and lid of the barrel in 
uncoiling. The successive coils also adhere and rub together, either per- 
manently or occasionally. All these resistances are from the nature of 
the case variable. 

Various forms of mainsprings have been adopted from time to time. 
The cylindrical spring was one in which the central coils were made 
thicker with a view to diminish the differences in the pull of the spring 
when wound up to varying degrees, and to increase its energy when 
nearly run down. The spring, when fully wound up, rubbed together 
in the central coils, so that the motive force when it was fully wound was 
neutralized by the friction. These springs are very rarely seen now, a$ 
they were expensive to manufacture, and the advantages they possessed 



237 Mainspring. 

Avere more apparent than real. The taper spring was another form, 
which is rarely seen now. The thickness of the metal in these springs, 
gradually diminished throughout its entire length, the effect being to 
make the coils, when fully wound up, separate, and on this account the 
spring developed freely. This form was abandoned on account of the 
cost of manufacture. The third form is the ordinary spring in use to-day, 
the thickness of whose coils is the same throughout. The develop- 
ment is less uniform than with the tapered spring, as is also the separa- 
tion of the coils, but it is cheaper of construction, and the variations do 
not exceed the limits that ordinary escapements can neutralize. 

M. M. Roze, in a work on the mainspring, lays down and demonstrate* 
the following theorems: 

1. A mainspring in the act of uncoiling in its barrel^ always gives a 
number of turns equal to the difference betiveen the number of coils in the 
up and down positions. 

For example, if 17 is the number of coils when the spring is rundown, 
and 25 is the number when against the arbor, the difference between 17 
and 25 or 8, will represent the number of turns in the uncoiling. 

2. With a given barrel, spring and arbor, in order that the number 
of turns may be a maxitnum, it is necessary that the length of the spring 
be such that the occupied part of the barrel, {exclusive of that filled by 
the arbor), be equal to the unoccupied part; in other words, the surface 
covered by the spring when up or down must be equal to the uncovered 
surface of the barrel bottom. 

The diameter of the arbor is not an arbitrary quantity, as it depends on 
the duration of flexure and thickness of the spring, and this depends 
greatly on the quality of the metal ; if it is too small, it is liable to rupture 
the spring and deprive it of part of its elastic reaction, and if too large, 
part of this reaction will be wasted. M. Roze demonstrated that the 
thickness of the spring should be to the diameter of the arbor as i :26 or 
34, according as the rotation of the barrel takes place more or less rap- 
idly. For example, 1 :26 is best suited to watches; i :3o for chronome- 
ters; and 1 :34 for clocks or time pieces that are expected to go for longer 
periods.* 

Until within a very few years mainsprings were made by a method 
that had been in use, and never improved on, for years. 

About 1885 the American Waltham Watch Company secured the ser- 
vices of foreman Logan, who for years had been engaged in making 
hairsprings, and was about to carry out a scheme for making main- 
springs, which he had long experimented upon and secured patents on. 

At the outset, Mr. Logan forsook the old methods of manufacturing 
springs, and adopted new and novel ways of producing better results at 

*I£ the reader is desirous of studying- the subject at leng^th, he is referred to Saun- 
ier's Modern Horolofry, pp. (6\ to 67? inclusive, and a Simple and Mechanically Per- 
fect Watch, Dy Moritz Grossman. Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co., Chicago. 



Mainspring. 238 

less cost. The experiments necessary to such a radical change were 
costly, but the improvement in the quality and finish of the springs was 
so gratifying that mechanical appliances in great variety have from 
time to time been put to work, so that to-day the product is double that 
of two years ago, while the number of employes necessary is about one- 
half, owing to automatic machinery. 

The steel used is manufactured expressly for springs, and comes in 
strips varying in length from one hundred to five hundred feet. As may 
well be supposed the best quality of steel adapted for the peculiar demands 
of a first-class watch mainspring was not found without much trouble, 
experimenting and expense. Steel made in England, France, Belgium, 
and this country were tried. After a series of trials, just the kind of steel 
desired was obtained. This steel is run through a machine which cuts 
it into numerous narrow ribbons, of widths suitable for the particular 
size of spring desired. 

These ribbons are simultaneously wound upon bobbins, and are next 
passed, individually, through specially designed rolls, to bring the steel 
to a more exact and uniform thickness than can possibly be obtained 
from steel makers. 

The next operation is that of rounding the edges, which is done by a 
new and unique machine. Following this the flat sides are ground and 
polished. 

Up to this point the steel is in the untempered condition in which it is 
received at the factory. Hardening and tempering is next in order; these 
operations are performed by new methods which are almost automatic. 

One of the elements which contributes largely to the very successful 
treatment of the steel in this important but delicate part of spring making 
is that of the fuel used for heating. In the earlier days of the manu- 
facture a great variety of fuel was tried, but nothing has been found to 
equal the carefully purified water gas, which is now used. 

Next in order the finishing polish is put on the sides and edges of the 
ribbons. Next the ribbons are cut up into exact lengths for individual 
springs. The ends are then annealed, preparatory to the punching for 
the reception of the barrel arbor hook and the tip. After punching fol- 
lows coiling, when any faults in tempering are made apparent. If the 
steel has been overheated the severe strain of coiling will cause it to 
break. Failure to draw the temper sufficiently low will produce the same 
result, while too low a temper will cause them to " set," and thereby in- 
dicate their worthlessness. 

Too soft springs are seldom found and the breakage in coiling is less 
than one-third of one per cent. The springs returned from the finishing 
department of the American factory for unsatisfactory performance in 
any direction amount to less than one-half of one per cent. 

After the springs have been coiled, the tips riveted on, they are care- 
fully gauged and then oiled to prevent rusting. They are then either 



Dimensions of Mainsprings. 
Millimeters and Fractions. Compiled by L. A. Grosclaude^ Geneva. 



No. of turns 




















spring is capable 


5 


5K 


6 


Q'A 


7 


7Y2 


8 


9 


10 


of developing. 




















Theoretical No. 


4Vj 


5 


5!/2 


6 


6'/2 


7 


7/2 


8'/2 


9J^ 


Seal No. 




















No. of coils the 




















Spring makes in 
the barrel when 


8.92 


9.81 


10.70 


11.60 


12.i9 


13.38 


14.27 


16.C6 


17.84 


run down. 




















<u 


o 


.a o 


ta 


fab 


































n 

•s 


< 

o 


•g.2 

„ o 

If 


ta 
o 


o 
o 


ta 

o> 


a 


2 


"S 
n 



V] 



a 
3 


i 




ta 



3 


.d 


n 
ta 

la 


fao 

g 


n 

SI 

<i> 
d 



3 


faa 
a 


n 
ta 
a> 
rt 



3 


■3 

n 





a 



3 


i 


«9 

ca 

n 



[■I 


in 


g 

€« 

n 






.M 
o 




H 




t< 




H 




Eh 




Eh 




EH 




EH 




EH 


10 


3.3 


1 23 


246 


0.138 


270 


0.125 


T95 


0.115 


"3I9 


0.106 


344 


0.090 


369 


om2 


3^93 


0.086 


442 


0.077 


492 


0.06»^ 


11 


3.7 


1.35 


270 


0.1.52 


297 


0.1.38 


324 


0.126 


351 


0.117 


378 


0,108 


406 


0,101 


432 


0.095 


487 


0.084 


541 


0.076 


12 


4.0 


1,48 


295 


0.1*16 


324 '0.1 50 


354 


0.138 


383 


0.127 


413 


0.118 


442 


0.110 


472 


0.103 


531 


0.092 


590 


0.083 


13 


4 3 


1.60 


319 


179 


.351 Jo. 163 


383 


0.149 


415 


0.138 


447 


128 


479 


0.120 


511 


0.112 


575 


0.100 


639 


0.090' 


14 


4 7 


1.72 


344 


0.193 


378,0.176 


413 


0.161 


447 


0.149 


482 


0.138 


516 


0.129 


550 


0.120 


619 


0.107 


688 


0.(J97 


15 


5,0 


1.84 


369 


0.207 


406 


0.188 


442 


0.172 


479 


0,1.59 


516 


0,148 


553 


0.138 


590 


0.129 


663 


0.115 


737 


0.103 


16 


5,3 


1.97 


393 


0.221 


433 


0.201 


472 


0,184 


511 


0.170 


551 


0,158 


590 


0.147 


629 


0.138 


708 


0.123 


786 


0.110 


17 


57 


2 09 


418 


0.235 


460 


213 


501 


0.195 


543 


0,180 


585 


0.167 


627 


0.156 


668 


0.146 


752 


0.130 


836 


0.117 


18 


6.0 


2 21 


442 


0.248 


487 


0.226 


531 


0.207 


575 


0.191 


619 


0.177 


664 


0.165 


708 


0.1.55 


796 


0.138 


885 


0.124 


19 


6.3 


2.34 


467 


0.262 


514 


0.238 


560 


0.218 


607 


0.202 


654 


0.187 


700 


0.175 


747' 


0.163 


840 


0.146 


934 


0.131 


"20" 


6.7 


2.46 


491 


276 


541 


0.251 


590 


0.230 


639 


212 


688 


0.197 


737 


0.184 


786 


0.172 


885 


0.153 


983 


0.1:38. 


21 


7,0 


2,58 


516 


0.2 -0 


568 


0.263 


619 


241 


671 


0,223 


72:3 


0.207 


774 


0.193 


826 


0.181 


929 


0.161 


1032 


0.145 


22 


73 


2 71 


541 


0.304 


595 


0.276 


649 


0.2,53 


703 


0.233 


757 


0.217 


811 


0.202 


865 


0.189 


973 


0.169 


1081 


0.152 


23 


77 


2.83 


565 


0.317 


622 


0.288 


678 


264 


735 


0.244 


791 


0.227 


848 


0.211 


904 


198 


1017 


0.176 


1131 


0.159 


24 


80 


2.95 


590 


0.331 


619 


0.301 


7v8 


0.276 


767 


0.255 


826 


0.ii36 


885 


0.221 


944 


0.207 


1062 


0.184 


1180 


0.166 


25 


8.3 


3.07 


614 


0.345 


676 


0,313 


737 


0.287 


799 


0.265 


860 


0,246 


922 


0.230 


983 


0.215 


110() 


0.192 


1229 


0.172 


26 


87 


3 20 


()39 


0.359 


703 


0.326 


767 


0.299 


831 


0.276 


895 


0.256 


9,58 


0.239 


1022 


224 


11,50 


0.199 


1278 


0.179 


27 


9.0 


3.32 


663 


0.373 


730 


0.339 


796 


0.310 


863 


0,286 


929 


0,266 


995 


0.248 


1062 


0.233 


1194 


0.207 


1327 


0.186 


28 


9.3 


3.44 


688 


0.386 


757 


0.351 


826 


0.322 


895 


0.297 


963 


0.276 


1032 


0.2,57 


1101 


0.241 


1238 


0.215 


1376 


0.193 


29 


9.7 


3.57 


713 


0.40U 


784 


0..364 


855 


0.3:« 


927 


0.308 


998 


0,286 


1JD69 


0.267 


1140 


0.250 


1283 


0.222 


1425 


0.200 


30 


10.0 


3.69 


737 


0.414 


811 


0.376 


885 


345 


958 


0.318 


1032 


0.296 


1106 


0.276 


1180 


0.259 


1327 


0.230 


1475 


0.207 


31 


10.3 


3.81 


762 


0.428 


838 


0.389 


914 


0.356 


990 


0.329 


1067 


0,305 


1143 


0.285 


1219 


0.267 


1371 


0.238 


1.524 


0,214 


32 


10.7 


3.94 


786 


0.442 


865 


0.401 


944 


0.368 


1022 


0,.339 


1101 


0.315 


1180 


0.294 


1258 


0.276 


1415 


0.240 


1573 


0,221 


33 


11,0 


4.06 


811 


0.455 


892 


0.414 


973 


379 


1054 


0.350 


1135 


0.325 


1217 


0.303 


1297 


0.284 


1460 


0.2.53 


1622 


0.228 


34 


11 3 


4.18 


835 


0. 169 


919 


0.426 


1003 


0.391 


1086 


0.361 


1170 


0.335 


12,53 


0..313 


1337 


0.293 


1,5(4 


0.261 


1671 


0.2:34 


35 


11 7 


4.30 


860 


0.483 


946 


0.439 


1032 


0,40:.' 


1118 


0.371 


1204 


0.345 


1290 


0.322 


1376 


0.302 


1548 


0.268 


1720 


0.241 


36 


12.0 


4.43 


885 


0.497 


973 


0.451 


1062 


414 


1150 


0..382 


1239 


0,355 


1327 


0..331 


1415 


0.310 


1,592 


0.27f) 


1770 


0.248 


37 


12.3 


4 55 


909 


0.511 


100' 1 


0.464 


1091 


0.425 


1182 


0.393 


1273 


0.364 


1364 


0.340 


1455 


319 


l(i37 


0.283 


1819 


0.255 


38 


12.7 


4 67 


934 


0.524 


1027 


0.476 


1121 


0.437 


1214 


0,403 


1..07 


0,374 


1401 


0.349 


1494 


0.327 


1681 


0.291 


1868 


0.262 


39 


13 


4 80 


958 


0.538 


10,54 


0.489 


1150 


0.448 


1246 


0.414 


1342 


0,384 


1438 


0.359 


1.533 


336 


1725 


0.29!) 


1917 


0.269 


40 


133 


4.92 


983 


0..552 


1081 


0.,502 


1180 


0.460 


1278 


0.424 


1376 


0.394 


J 475 


0.368 


1,573 


('.345 


1769 


0.306 


l!)6fi 


0.276 


41 


13.7 


5.04 


1007 


0..566 


1108 


0.514 


1209 


0.471 


1310 


0.435 


1411 


0.404 


1511 


0.377 


l()12 


0.353 


1M13 


0.314 


2015 


0.283 


42 


14,0 


5.17 


1032 


0.58 t 


1135 


0.527 


1239 


0.483 


1342 


0.446 


1445 


414 


1548 


0.386 


16.51 


362 


18.58 


0.322 


2064 


0.2(«) 


43 


14,3 


5.29 


H).57 


593 


1162 


0.539 


12()8 


0.494 


1374 


0.4.':6 


1479 


0.424 


1585 


0.395 


1691 


0.371 


l!:02 


0.32!) 


2114 


0.297 


44 


14,7 


5.41 


1081 


0.607 


1189 


0.5,52 


1298 


0.506 


1406 


467 


1514 


0,433 


1622 


0.405 


1730 


379 


1946 


0.337 


2163 


0:303 


45 


15 


.5.53 


1106 


0.621 


1217 


0.5';4 


1327 


0.517 


1438 


0.477 


1,548 


0.443 


1659 


0.414 


17()9 


388 


1990 


0.345 


2212 


0.310 


46 


15 3 


5.66 


1130 


6 55 


1244 


0..577 


13,57 


0.529 


1470 


0.488 
0.499 


15S3 


0.4,53 


1696 


0.423 


1809 


397' 


2035 


0.3.52 


2261 


317 


47 


\-i.l 


5.78 


11.55 


649 


1271 


0.589 


1386 


0..540 


1502 


1617 


0.463 


1733 


0.432 


1848 


0.405 


207!) 


0.:S60 


2310 


().:324 


48 


16.0 


5.90 


1179 


0.662 


1298 


0.602 


1416 


0.552 


1534 


0.,5ti9 


16,52 


0.473 


1769 


0.441 


1887 


414 


2123 


O.oOS 


2359 


0.331 


49 


16.3 


6.03 


1204 


0.676 


1325 


0.614 


1445 


563 


1566 


0.520 


1686 


0.483 


18*6 


0.451 


1927 


0.422 


2167 


0.375 


2408 


(i.:338 


50 


16.7 


6.15 


1228 


0.690 


1352 


0.627 


1474 


0.575 


1,597' 


0,530 


1720 


0.493 


1843 


0.460 


1966 


0.431 


2211 


0.38:3 


2458 


0.345 


51 


17 


6.27 


1253 


0704 


1379 


0,639 


1504 


0.586 


1629 


0.541 


1755 


0.,502 


1880 


0.469 


2005 


0.440 


22.56 


0.391 


2,507 


0.3.-,2 


52 


17.3 


6.40 


1278 


0.718 


1406 


0.6.52 


1,533 


0.598 


1061 


0.5.52 


1789 


0.512 


1917 


478 


2045 


0.448 


2300 


0.3!)S 


25,5(5 


0.3,59 


53 


17.7 


6.52 


1302 


0.731 


1433 


0.665 


1,563 


0.609 


1693 


562 


1824 


0..522 


19,54 


0.487 


2084 


0.4,57 


2341 


0.40(i 


2(;05 


0.365 


54 


18.0 


6.64 


1327 


0.745 


1460 


677 


1,592 


0.621 


1725 


0.573 


18.58 


0.532 


1991 


0.496 


2123 


0.465 


23S8 


0.414 


2(;54 


o.:572 


55 


18.3 


6 76 


1351 


0.759 


1487 


0.690 


1622 


0.632 


17.57 


0.583 


1S92 


0.542 


2028 


0..506 


2163 


0.474 


24.33 


0.121 


2703 


0.:379 


56 


18.7 


6.89 


1376 


0.773 


1.514 


0.702 


1651 


0.644 


1789 


0,594 


1927 


0.552 


2064 


0.515 


2202 


0.483 


2477 


0.429 


27.53 


0,:386 


57 


19.0 


7.01 


1400 


0.787 


1,541 


715 


1681 


0.6,55 


1821 


0.605 


1961 


0.562 


2101 


0.524 


2241 


0.491 


2521 


0.4:57 


2802 


0.:3!)3 


58 


19.3 


7.13 


1425 


800 


1.^68 


0.727 


1710 


0.667 


1853 


0.615 


1996 


0.,571 


2138 


0., 5332281 


0..500 


2,5()') 


0.441 


2851 


0.4(X> 


59 


19.7 


7 26 


14,50 


0.814 


1,595 


0.740 


1740 


0.678 


1885 


0.626 


2030 


0.,581 


2175 


0.,542 2320 


0., 508126 10 


O.452I29OO 0.407 


60 


2G.0 


7.38 


1474 


0.828 


1622 


0.7.52 


1769 


0.690 


1917 


0.637 


2064 


0.591 


2212 


0.552 2359;0.517|2654 


O.460I2949 0.414 



Mainspring Punch. 240 

wound into capsules (from which they can be transferred directly into a 
watch barrel) or enclosed in packages containing one dozen each. 

The product has been increased from sixty-five gross per month in 
1886, to two thousand gross per month in 1892. Of this large amount 
about two thousand springs are required daily for the product of watches 
at the factory and the remainder are sold to the trade to supply the 
watch repairers throughout the country. 

Cleaning Mainsprings. Workmen have often been seen cleaning a 
mainspring by seizing it with a rag and then drawing it out pitilessly 
and unmercifully. No other consequences can follow such treatment 
than the breakage of the spring on the earliest possible occasion. 
Cleaning is best done in the following manner: Lay the spring in ben- 
zine. As soon as the adhering oil is dissolved, take it out and seize it 
with a soft linen rag which imbibes the greater part of the adhering ben- 
zine. Cover the palm of the left hand with a corner of the rag ; put the 
spring flat upon it and with the index finger of the right hand, around 
which another part of the rag is wound, press gently upon it, and let it 
assume a conical shape; by suitable motions of the finger while wiping, 
the spring will turn, and every part of its blade may easily and thor- 
oughly be cleansed of all impurities. A spring treated in this manner 
will be freed of all matter, while at the same time its molecular arrange- 
ment is not violently interfered with, in a way calculated to injure its 
elasticity. 

MAINSPRING PUNCH. A punch used by watchmakers for per- 
forating mainsprings. It is inserted in a vise when used. These 
punches are also made in the form of tongs or plyers. 

MAINSPRING WINDER. A good main.nrin^ . • a • 

ft " •nainsprmg winder is a 

necessary adjunct to every watchmaker's bench. The Stark pntent 
winder, shown in Fig. 205, is a very superior tool, is simple and durnble, 

and should last for a life time. 
The winder is fastened in 
a vise: the adjustable nut is 
then turned until the barrel 
will fitloosely over the jaws; 
the barrel is then removed 
and the spring wound on 
the arbor inside the jaws. 
Now let the handle turn 
backward until the arbor is 

!■ ly. 205. r c 

free from the center; pull 
the arbor back and turn it half round; place the barrel back again over 
the jaws and spring, and hold it up tightly against the winder with the 
left hand; at the same time push the arbor forward with the right hand 




241 



Mainspring Winder. 




Mainspring Winder. 242 

until the barrel and spring are free from the jaws, and the spring will 
be found to be in its proper place without further operation. There are 
two sizes of winding arbors, one for small and the other for large barrels. 
The arbors are easily changed by turning the thumb screw up until it is 
free, then changing the arbors and screwing the thumb screw down again. 

The Vaughan patent mainspring winder, shown in the illustration, is 
intended for removing and replacing springs in clock barrels. Fig. 206 
shoA's the machine ready for use; Fig. 207 shows the arms adjusted to 
the teeth of barrel, for holding barrel while spring is being wound. Fig. 
20S shows the winder holding the spring after the barrel has been 
removed, and also as wound, ready to place in the barrel. 

The claims made for this device are: It winds either way, as the case 
may require. Every part is adjustable, so that it will handle any spring, 
and hold any size barrel. Through the whole operation of removing the- 
spring from the barrel and replacing it, the spring is kept in its natural 
position. After spring and barrel have been cleaned and barrel polished, 
they need not be touched with the hands, if the operator chooses to- 
handle them with paper. The spring can be oiled when wound, as in 
Fig. 208, which carries the oil to bottom of the barrel, and prevents any 
excess of oil getting on the outside. It does not require a vise, but can 
be used in one place as well as another. There is no strain on the hands, 
more than winding the spring after it is in the clock. The plates and 
all the working parts are made of steel, and though light and neat in 
appearance, it is strong and durable. 

To take the spring out of the barrel, adjust the arms used to hold the 
barrel, to the right height to meet the teeth of the barrel and swing them 
wide open, securing them by the thumb screw on the back of the winder. 
Place the barrel containing the spring over the winding arbor of the 
machine, and catch the hook on the arbor to the spring. Swing the 
pawl lever to allow you to wind the way you desire, and turn the handle, 
allowing the barrel to turn with it, until the hook in the barrel, to which 
the outer end of the spring fastens, comes to within about one-half inch 
of the jaws which hold the outer edge of the spring on the machine. 
Free the arms and swing them into the teeth of the barrel, and with the 
barrel in the center of the machine, again secure them firmly by the 
thumb screw. Take the machine in the left hand, which will enable you 
to hold the arms tightly to the barrel, and the barrel down to the winder, 
without any danger of their springing away. Wind the spring nearly 
up, which will free the outer coil from the barrel, and allow you to- 
adjust the jaws to the spring. Crowd the jaws onto the spring as far as 
possible and fasten them firmly to the spring by means of the thumb 
screw at the upper end of the winder The spring is now transferred 
from the barrel to the winder, and the arms can be released and the barrel 
removed. Reverse the pawl lever and turn the handle up a trifle, when 
the pawl will change sides, allowing the spring to let down. 



243 



Maintaining Power. 



To replace the spring in the barrel, wind the spring on the machine, 
as shown in Fig. 208. Place the barrel over it, with the hook opposite 
the hole in the spring. Reverse the pawl lever and let the spring down. 
Release the jaws from the spring, and the work is done. The arms for 
holding the barrel are only used in taking the spring out. 



MAINTAINING POWER. 

clock while being wound. 



A mechanism for driving a watch or 



MALTESE CROSS. 

used in stop works. 



A wheel in the shape of a maltese cross,. 



MANDREL. A cheap form of lathe, but little used in this country, 
being superseded by the American lathe. It is known also as the Swiss- 
Universal Lathe. The mandrel is worked by means of a handle, and is 




Fig. 209. 

usually made with wheel and pinion, although a round belt or gut is 
sometimes used. It has a face plate, pump center, tail stock and slide 
rest. This tool is superfluous where the workman has an American 
lathe with slide rest and universal head; for on a lathe with these attach- 
ments, a greater variety of work can be performed in less time and in a 
better manner. 

MASS. The amount of matter a body contains. It must not be 
confounded with weight, for the mass of a body remains the same, no 
matter in what part of the world it may be, but its weight would vary in 
different latitudes. 



MATERIAL CUP. This cup will be found very useful to those 
who keep small material in bottles. The material, being placed in the 
cup, spreads out over the bottom, and the piece wanted is easily selected. 
The remainder can then be returned to the bottle through the spout with 
no danger of losing a piece. 



Matting. 



244 



MATTING. The grained or frosted surface given to work before 
gilding or silvering. See Electro-Plating. 

MERIDIAN DIAL. An instrument for determining when the sun 
is on the meridian 

MICROMETER. An instrument used for measuring verv minute 
distances with extreme exactness. See Gauge. 

MILLIMETER. A lineal measure based on the thousandth part of 
a meter, or about one-twenty-fifth of an inch. It is used principally by 
French watchmakers. 

MILLING CUTTERS. It has been a difficult matter for mechanics 






8 




38* 

V 




Fig. 210. 
to understand the proper angle for a cutter to mill, or burr the stock, so 
that it will bend into the proper angle and 
make it a right joint. Fig. 210 will convey 
a very good idea of the proper shapes or angles 
for such cutters. 

The angle of the cutter depends. exitirely on 
the number of sides the article is to have, and 
can always be determined by rule. The rule 
is a simple one, which is to divide 360° by the 
number of sides to the angle, i. e., 360-7-4 = 90. 




MILLING FIXTURE. This attachment 
is fitted to the slide rest and holds the wire 
chuck vertically under the center of the lathe, 
so that articles held in the chucks can be fed under mills or saws held 
in the saw arbor. 



Fig. 211. 



245 Miter Gears. 

MITER GEARS. Gears whose shafts are at right angles to each 
other and whose diameters are equal. All miter gears are bevel gears, 
but all bevel gears are not miter gears 

MOINET, LOUIS. A clever watchmaker and writer of France. 
He was born at Bourges, in 1768 and died in 1853. 

MOMENT OF ELASTICITY of a spring is its power of resist- 
ance. It varies directly as the modulus of elasticity of the material, and 
as the breadth and the cube of the thickness of the spring when its sec- * 

tion IS rectangular. Mo= E — — is Mr. T. D. Wright's formula, E rep- 

resenting the modulus of elasticity, b the breadth, and t the thickness of 

the spring. 

The moment of elasticity must not be confounded with the bending 

moment. The bending moment is a measure of the resistance a spring 

offers to bending, and of the amount of bending which has been produced, 

which varies directly as the angle wound through, and inversely as the 

length of the spring. 

Ebt^A 
M = is the formula given by Mr. T. D. Wright for ascertaining 

the bending moment, E being the modulus of elasticity, b the breadth, 
/ the thickness, and L. the length of the spring, and A the angle through 
which it is wound. 

This formula also determines the value of the force which has pro- 
duced the bending, for if the forces are in equilibrium, the moment of the 
resisting force must be exactly equal to the moment of the bending 
force. 

MOMENT OF INERTIA. The resistance to change of velocity 
offered by a rotating or revolving body. The moment of inertia, which 
is generally represented by /, varies directly as the mass, and as the 
square of the radius of gyration of the body. 

MOMENTUM. The amount of motion in a body, which is obtained 
by multiplying its mass by its velocity. 

MOSELEY, CHARLES S. Mr. Moseley has been intimately con- 
nected with nearly every watch company in the United States, and as a 
mechanical engineer and designer of watch machinery, of the automatic 
type, he has had no superiors and but few equals. Among those that 
have acquired a world-wide reputation may be mentioned the inter- 
changeable stem-wind mechanism of the Elgin National Watch Com- 
pany ; the dust-band used by the same company, the best and cheapest 



Motel. 



246 



ever made; the triangular hairspring stud; a patent regulator and the 
split chuck, an accessory now become universal and indispensable to 
-every watchmaker in the land. He was born at Westfield, Mass., Feb. 
28. 1838. His first connection with watchmaking 
was in 1852, when he entered the employ of 
Dennison, Howard & Davis, at Roxbury, Mas6. 
He followed the factory to Waltham and was 
employed in the capacity of foxsman of the 
machine shop and later as master mechanic. In 
1859 ^^ became master mechanic of the Nashua 
Watch factory, and designed and built the machin- 
ery with which that watch was manufactured. 
In 1864 he joined the Elgin National Watch 
Company, then just starting, and was made general superintendent, in 
which capacity he remained with the company until 1877. 




Charles S. Moseley. 



MOTEL, H. A French chronometer maker, pupil and successor of 
Louis Berthoud. His chronometers were remarkable for their close 
rates and for their beautiful construction. He died in 1859. 

MOTION WORK. The wheels of a watch or clock which cause the 
hour hand to travel one-twelfth as fast as the minute hand. 



MOVEMENT. A term usually applied to the mechanism of a 
watch or clock, independent of a case. 

MOVEMENT BOX. A metal box with glass sides, for holding 
watch movements while timing, etc., before casing. In the Rockford 
box, shown in Fig. 213, stem wind movements can be wound without 
fingering or exposure to dust. 





Fig. 213. Fig. 2U. 

MOVEMENT COVER. A glass shade to protect a movement, or 
portions of a movement from dust and from being lost while undergoing 
repairs. Fig. 214, illustrates an improved cover, with wooden base 



347 



Movement Holder. 



•divided into compartments for the reception of the various parts, so they 
may be kept separate and readily picked out. 

MOVEMENT HOLDER. A metal frame, as shown in Fig. 215, 
having three adjustable arms for holding the movement by clamping on 
to the plate. It is useful in putting a watch together, as it rests upon the 
bench and leaves both hands free to work with and the plates are kept 
free from finger marks. 





Fig. 215. Fig. 216. 

MOVEMENT REST. A wooden, bone or rubber shell, Fig. 216, 
similar to eye-glass frames, for holding movements while undergoing 
repairs, oiling, etc. 

MUDGE THOMAS. The inventor of the lever escapement and a 
maker of marine chronometers. He was born at Exeter, England, in 
17 1 5. He was apprenticed to the celebrated George Graham in 1729. 
From 1750 to 1771 he was engaged in business in Fleet 
street, London. In 1765 he invented the lever escape- 
ment. In 1 77 1 he removed to Plymouth. In 1777 he 
was made clockmaker to the king. In 1793 Parliament 
voted him the sum of £2,500, he having previously 
received £500, as a reward for his marine time keepers. 
He devoted the greater part of his life to the improve- 
Thomas Mudge. ^^^^ ^^ the marine chronometer, and his work in this 
line was celebrated for finish and correct proportion of details. He 
died Nov. 24, 1794. 




NON-MAGNETIC WATCH. A watch whose parts cannot be 
polarized in a magnetic field ; a watch whose quick moving parts are 
made of some other metal than steel or iron. Paillard, who has studied 
tion-magnetic metals with great care, makes his balance springs of pal- 
ladium, and his balances of palladium alloyed with copper, silver and 
•other metals. In some instances he appears to have used a palladium 



Oil. 248 

alloj for the inner part, and brass for the outer part of the rim, and in 
others to have formed both laminae of different alloys of palladium. 
Aluminium bronze, which combines strength with lightness, is particu* 
larlj suited for the lever and pallets. The American Waltham Watch 
Company have obtained remarkable results in non -magnetic watches^ 
with an alloy of platinum. Steel in its hardened and tempered form, 
has long been used for the balance springs of watches, but from the fact 
that it owed its elasticity to the process of fire hardening_ it has always 
been uncertain in its action, and often two springs from the same piec« 
of steel would give very different results when put to the same tests. 
This, it is claimed, is not true of the alloy used by the Waltham Com- 
pany. The non-magnetic spring, they claim, is a natural spring; it 
requires no rolling or hammering to harden or make it elastic. Its elas- 
ticity is a property of the alloy, and from nothing mechanical done to it^ 
and that it cannot be annealed, or robbed of its elasticity, can be shown 
by heating it to a red heat of nearly i,ioo degrees Fahr., with no change 
of elasticity. At this degree of heat, steal is annealed, or becomes soft, 
and of no use as a spring. 

In the expansion balance of ordinary construction, intended to com- 
pensate for temperature, steel is used as the metal of lowest expansion 
ratio, but in this case never in its hardened and tempered form. Such a 
balance would be too irregular in its action. No two balances would 
work alike, and anyone manufacturing such would find a difference of 
temper or degree of elasticity in each arm of the inside steel laminae. The 
greatest controlling factor in the expansion balance, is the brass outside 
laminae, and unless it is hammered or rolled it is of no practical use. A 
good expansion balance of the usual make depends more on the brass 
than the steel for its action, and it is a v/ell known fact that brass is one 
of the most uncertain alloys known, and will often, when not in use, 
deteriorate to such an extent as to have no value for its original purpose. 
The Waltham non-magnetic balance is said to stand a change of temper- 
ature of 400 degrees Fahr., and return to its original form, as shown by 
guages. The non-magnetic balance metals, while having the expansion 
ratio required, also have a greater natural degree of elasticity than the 
brass and steel construction, thus making a balance that, when in use in 
the watch, retains its shape, and will not get out of poise. 

OIL. One of the most essential things to the good performance and 
durability of a watch or clock is good oil. A little thought given to the 
subject of oil will show how very essential it is that only the very best 
attainable be used. The mechanism of a fine watch, and particularly- 
one of a complicated nature, is expected to perform regularly and with 
little or no variation, although after a thorough cleaning and oiling that 
mechanism may not fall into the hands of the repairer oftener than once 
a year, and in the majority of cases it is a longer interval of time. There 



249 Oil. 

are few mechanical contrivances from which so much is expected as a 
fine watch or chronometer, and jet there are none that receive, in pro- 
portion to their mechanism, so little care and attention. The engineer 
carefully wipes and oils his engine at least once a day : the machinist 
does the same with the lathes and machines under his care, but the 
watch, a mechanism far more coinplicated and from which much more 
is expected in regard to correct performance, does not receive this care 
oftener, on an average, than once a year. How essential it is then that 
the lubricant be of the finest possible quality. 

The essential requisites of an oil that will insure correct performance 
of a watch during this time are: 

1. It must remain liquid when exposed to severe cold. 

2. It must evaporate slowly under intense heat. 

3. It must not corrode on metal. 

4. It must not become gummy. 

What oils best withstand this test? For many years European watch- 
makers gave the preference to pure olive oil, but experiment has proven 
that this oil is wholly unfit for watches and the same may be said of all 
vegetable oils, for they invariably become gummy and turn green when 
placed in contact with brass. Neat's foot oils were found to possess sim- 
ilar unfitting qualities, and mineral oils are found to evaporate too 
quickly. 

Nothing then remains but fish oils and those made from a species of 
porpoise known as the black fish, are considered the very best. Fine 
watch and chronometer oils of this class are prepared from the head 
and jaw only, which parts yield a limited quantity of very pure oil, 
known as "jaw and melon oil." This oil is carefully extracted without 
allowing any flesh or blood to come in contact with it, and after trying is 
filtered and retained in its native purity as nearly as possible, no bleach. 
ing, either by sun, acids or alkalies being employed. There is a popular 
fallacy existing in the trade that oils should be used when fresh, and even 
the acknowledged authority, Saunier, says, "do not buy, from motives of 
economy, bottles that have laid for years in the shop." This may be 
true and probably is, in regard to vegetable and animal oils, which 
are likely to become rancid if kept for a long time, but Wm. F. Nye, one 
of the largest and most celebrated manufacturers of fine watch and 
chronometer oils in the world, declares that black fish oils are improved 
by age, and his oils are seldom placed upon the market in the same 
year as obtained. We are indebted to the same authority for the state- 
ment that oils of this kind are clearer and more brilliant after some years 
than fresh oils. The Nye oils are tried at New Bedford, Mass., and in 
the following winter are sent to St. Albans, Vt., where it is chilled down 
and filtered at an average temperature of 25° below zero, and in some 
instances, even as low as 37° below zero. In this manner the specific 
gravity and density of the oil is increased, a finer grain and texture are 



Oiler. 250 

secured, giving increased resistance to the effects of both heat and 
cold. The two prominent manufacturers of black fish oils in this coun- 
try, and we might say in the world, are Wm. F. Nye and Ezra Kelley, 
both of New Bedford, Mass. The watchmaker should be very careful 
what oils he uses, as many on the market are of foreign manufacture and 
are made from the olive, or are combinations of animal and vegetable 
oils. 

OILER. A fine steel wire, mounted in a wooden or bone handle and 
used for applying oil to the mechanism of a watch or clock. Fig.2i8is a 




Fig. 21S. 

Bullock oiler, made with 14k. gold tip, and has a collet which keeps the 
point from touching the bench and also prevents oiler from rolling. 

OIL SINK. The cavity turned in watch and clock plates and jewels, 
around the pivot holes. Experience, says Britten, has shown that when 
the oil sink in chronometers and clocks, where the plates are not gilt, is 
thoroughly well polished, not only is the oil drawn to the pivot more 
freely, but it is less decomposed by contact with the metal than when the 
sinks are rougher. Oil sinks should be deep and small in diameter 
rather than shallow and wide. Saunier says that care should be taken 
that the internal faces of the holes in which the shoulders of the axis 
rest, as well as the external faces, when these holes are provided with 
-end-stones, are hollowed in talloiv drop form, with a very slight interval 
'between the bottom of the hole and the end-stone. When these precau- 
tions are taken, the oil, if not present in too great a quantity, will neither 
spread nor run down the axis, but will remain partly in the oil sink and 
partly attached to the shoulders of the axis, and in the case of pivot 
holes with end-stones, as the oil is exhausted, that spread over the end- 
stone will be drawn into the pivot hole through capillarity. 

OILSTONES. A stone upon which cutting tools are rubbed to give 
them a fine edge. Oil or some other lubricant is always used with the 
oilstone. A mixture of one part alcohol and two parts glycerine will be 
found a much better lubricant for the oilstone, where small tools such as 
watchmakers use, are sharpened, than will the ordinary oils used. Oil- 
stones often become so saturated with oil as to be almost useless and are 
often abandoned on this account. Such a stone, if soaked in benzine for 
a few days, will come out as good as new. 

Circular Oilstones. Circular stones will be found much superior to 
the ordinary flat oilstones commonly used, for sharpening drills, graverb 



251 Oilstone Dust. 

and other cutting tools, where it is desirable to have an exact angle. An 
Arkansas or Turkey stone dressed down to circular form, and say i^ 
inches in diameter, when mounted on a lathe chuck, will be found to 
be far superior to the common flat stone. Apply a small quantity of 
watch oil, or what is better, a mixture composed of one-half alcohol and 
one-half glycerine, and hold your graver or drill at the exact angle you 
want the cutting edges and turn at a moderate speed. Truer angles and 
better work can be obtained in this manner than by any other. Emery 
and corundum wheels mounted in a similar manner will be found very 
handy accessories to the watchmaker's bench. 

OILSTONE DUST. A preparation of powdered oilstone, used for 
smoothing pivots and other steel parts. 

OVERBANKING. When the balance vibrates excessively and 
causes the ruby pin to push past the lever, it is known as overbanking. 

OVERCOIL. The last coil of a Breguet hairspring, where it is bent 
over the body of the spring towards the center, is called the overcoil. 

PACIFICUS. Archdeacon of Verona, and the accredited inventor of 
the weight clock, in 850, A. D. See Clock. 

PALLET. That portion of an escapement by means of which the 
escape wheel gives impulse to the balance. 

PALLET STAFF. The staff or axis of the pallets. 

PALLET STONES. The stones which form the rubber surfaces 
of a pallet. 

PALLET STONE ADJUSTER. Fig. 219 is a Bullock pallet stone 
adjuster, which will be found very 

useful in holding pallets and protect- ^':;^^____I~| ; ~^;^ *• "** 
ing them from heat, while heating ' "^^a* 

cement in order to adjust stones. Fig. 219. 

PARACHUTE. An invention of Breguet, in which the end stones 
of the balance staff of a watch are supported on springs, so as to yield 
to undue pressure. The idea of the parachute is that if the watch islet 
fall, or subjected to sudden jerks in any other way, the balance staff 
pivots may be saved from damage by the yielding of the end stones. 

PEG WOOD. Small round sticks of wood used for cleaning out 
pivot holes, etc. 



Pendant. 



253 



PENDANT. The portion of a watch case to which the bow is 
attached, and the portion connecting it with the case. 

Pendant Bow. The ring of metal by which the chain is attached to 
the case. 

Pendant Bow Tightener. Bullock's patent pendant bow pliers, 
shown In Fig. 220, are very handy for tightening a loose pendant bow or 




Fig. 220. 

putting a distorted bow into shape again. It is always desirable to have 
the pendant bow of a watch tight in its place, and turn with consider- 
able friction, though it it is sometimes difficult to tighten a loose bow 
when the seat is worn deeply. 



Pendant Bow Drill. 




This tool, which is shown in Fig. 221. consists 
of a loose spindle with a crank and a 
drill rest, adapted to be used in the 
vise on the bench. The illustration 
shows a pendant bow being drilled, 
and its method of operation will be 
readily understood from the cut. 



PENDULE WATCHES. A 

name given to watches of early con- 
struction, having on one arm, or 
cross-piece of the balance a repre- 
sentation of the bob of a pendulum 
Fig. 221. and visible to the eye by a portion of 

the cock being cut away; thus this arm of the balance, at every vibra- 
tion, would hare the appearance as well as regularity of a pendulum. 



PENDULUM. A body suspended from a fixed point in such a man- 
ner as to swing freely too and fro by the alternate action of gravity and 
momentum. The theoretical length of a pendulum, to beat seconds, or 
other time, depends upon its location, for the force that gravity exerts 
upon a body depends on the distance of the body from the center of the 
earth. The length of a seconds' pendulum at 



253 Pendulum. 

The Equator is 39 inches 

Rio de Janeiro 39-01 " 

Madras 39-02 " 

New York 39.1012 " 

Paris 39-13 " 

London . . 39-14 '* 

Edinburgh 39-15 " 

Greenland 39-20 " 

North and South Pole 39.206 *' 

Galileo's discovery of the law of pendulums was made in 1582 (See 
Galileo.). Observing the regularity of the swinging of a lamp, suspended 
from the roof of the cathedral of Pisa, he noticed that, whatever the arc 
of vibration, the time of vibration remained nearly the same. If a slight 
angular movement be given to a freely suspended pendulum, its oscilla- 
tions, while gradually diminishing in extent, will occupy periods, which 
at first sight, Galileo affirmed to be equal. He was mistaken, however, 
as the difference, although very slight with short arcs, is none the less 
real, and Huyghens discovered and proved that the oscillations of a pendu- 
lum are only isochronal when its center of oscillation describes a cycloidal 
path. By experiment, Galileo also determined the law of the length of 
pendulums. He found that by increasing the length of the pendulum 
the time of vibration increased. 

The first application of the pendulum to clocks was made by Huyghens 
in 1657, although Galileo had some idea of this adaptation, and he even 
invented an escapement with a view to carrying it out. 

Simple Pendulum. A purely theoretical pendulum, having no 
dimensions except length and no weight except at the center of oscil- 
lation. A material point suspended by an ideal line. The nearest 
approach to a simple pendulum is a heavy weight suspended by a fine 
silk thread, although this is known as a compound or physical pendulum. 

Compound or Physical Pendulum. A heavy weight suspended 
from a fixed point by means of a slender thread or wire as ^ 
shown in Fig. 222. / 

Oscillating Pendulum. A pendulum that moves backward / 
and forward and whose lower extremity traces an arc. This / 
term is used to distinguish an ordinary pendulum (which is / 
an oscillating pendulum), from a conical or torsion pendulum, i 

Fig. 222 is an oscillating pendulum and its path is denoted by ^ "" 

the dotted lines. Fig. 222. 

Conical Pendulum. A pendulum which in its swing describes the 
figure of a cone in the air. A pendulum whose lower extremity 



Pendulums. 254 

describes a circle as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 223. By compar- 
ison it will be found that a conical pendulum completes its circular 

travel in the same time that an oscillating pendulum requires 

to make a complete swing, back and forth. 

Torsion Pendulum. A torsion pendulum is one that 
depends for its vibrations upon the twisting and untwisting of 
an elastic suspension. The path of a torsion pendulum is 
, unlike that of other pendulums, as it does not swing from 
■ right to left, but simply revolves horizontally, the suspension 
Fig. 223. acting as an axis. The action of a torsion pendulum is very 
simple; after turning the bob or weight and releasing it, the elasticity of 
the wire or other suspension returns it to the point of rest and the 
momentum of the weight carries it forward, twisting the suspension in 
the opposite direction, until the weight reaches a point where the 
momentum of the weight is overbalanced by the resitance of the sus- 
pension, when the suspension again untwists, turning the bob in the op- 
posite direction. These oscillations, which, within certain limits are 
very nearly equal, continue until the force originally applied is exhausted 
in friction. The application of the torsion pendulum to clocks has been, 
successfully accomplished. By its use either of two results 
may be secured; the time of running may be prolonged in 
proportion as the period of the torsion pendulum is longer than 
that of an oscillating one, or the number of gear wheels 
required in the clock may be greatly reduced. Ordinary 
clocks have been constructed on this principle that would run 
a year with a single winding, while others have been con- 
structed that would run a much longer period. Fig. 224 ^»i«^«^ 
illustrates a simple torsion pendulum that can easily be con- Fig. 224. 
structed for experimental purposes. It has parallel suspension wires f 
inch apart and 5 feet long, made from No. 30 brass spring wire. The 
bob is formed of a disc of metal, with a series of split lead balls pinched 
down upon its edge. It has a double loop fixed at the center for fasten- 
ing the suspension wires. The diameter of the disc is 4 inches and the 
total weight of bob i^ pounds. 

Laws of Pendulums. There are three laws in regard to the 
movement of simple pendulums that are well to remember, i. T/ie 
ntimber of vibrations ferjonned by pendulums in a give7i time are inversely 
as the square roots of the lengths. If the bob is displaced 'rom the verti- 
cal and released, it will return, and ascend to an equal distance on the 
other side in virtue of its weight. The velocity of movement of the 
pendulum is in accordance with the laws of falling bodies for the mov- 
ing pendulum is no more than a falling body under certain restrictions. 
If we assume the pendulum to be displaced laterally until its rod is in a 



255 Pendulums, 

horizontal position, it will be seen that the distance through which it 
descends is equal to the length of the pendulum. Hence it follows that 
the descent of a short pendulum will, in virtue of the laws above referred 
to, take place in much less time than that of a long one. Thus, consider 
the case of a short pendulum whose length is a quarter of that of the 
longer one ; the shorter will travel twice as quickly as the longer, or, in 
other words, it will perform two oscillations while the longer performs 
one. The lengths are as 1 14 and the square roots of these numbers are 

1 and 2 ; thus the number of oscillations are inversely as these square 
roots. 

The times occupied in the descent^ or the periods of the oscillations^ are pro- 
portional to the square roots of the length. If the lojiger pendulum tall in 

2 seconds, the shorter falls twice as quickly and will therefore reach the 
vertical in 1 second ; and 2 and i are the square roots of the length 4 and i. 

3. The lengths are ifiversely proportional to the squares of the munber of 
oscillations in a given time. If we observe that : 

The lengths are _ i and 4. 

The corresponding number of oscillations. 2 and i. 
The squares of these number 4 and i. 

we have some evidence of the truth of this law. These several laws 
will enable us to determine the length of pendulum for any case that 
presents itself. 

Saunier gives the following method for determining the length of a 
simple pendulum, the numbers of oscillations being given, or vice versa. 
Let the pendulum be required to perform 7,000 oscillations in an hour. 
The simple seconds pendulum (at Paris) measures 994 mm. (39.13 in.), 
and it makes 60 x 60 or 3,600 oscillations per hour; we thus, from the 
law 3 above given, have the proportion : 

7,000 X 7,000 : 3,600 X 3,600 : : 994 : x 
or 49,000,000 : 12,960,000 : : 994 : x 

Dividing the product of the means by the known extreme we obtain: 
12,960,000 X 994 



262.9 rnm. (10.35 ins.) 



49,000,000 



If the length of a pendulum be given, say 121 mm. (4.764 ins.), the 
number of oscillations will be calculated in accordance with law i : 

\ 1 2 1 : \ 994 : : 3,600 : x f 
or II : 31.525 : : 3,600 : x 

t The radix sign ^ indicates that the root is to be extracted from the number 
placed under it. 



Pendulums. 256 



whence we obtain 

31.525 X 3,600 



== 10,317, the required number of oscillations. 



II 

From the above it will be seen that it was very easy to find the length 
•of the pendulum for a given number of vibrations, or vice versa^ 
although such calculations are quite useless while we have the accom- 
panying table of lengths of pendulums for any number of oscillations. 
However, it may often be necessary to solve such problems where you 
do not have access to such tables, and it is therefore valuable to know just 
how to proceed. 

M. Millet gives another method which is rather more simple. Take as 
a basis for calculation the pendulum that performs one oscillation in an 
hour, the length of which is 12,880,337.93 meters (507,109,080 inches) or 
in round numbers, 12,880,338 meters; by law 3 we obtain the following 
proportion : 

12,880,338: ;c (the length): : V^ (the velocity): i^ 

Since the square of i is i, it is only necessary to replace x by the 
length (if this is given), or V by the number of oscillations in an hour, 
(if they are predetermined), and the value of the unknown quantity 
will be obtained. 

Example: How many oscillations will be made by a pendulum meas- 
uring 305 mm. (12.008 inches).'' 

We have the proportion : 12,880.338:0.305: : F': i. 
Dividing the product of the extremes by the known mean, * 

* To extract the square root ot a whole number, place a point or dot over the units* 
place of the given number, and thence over every second fig-ure to the left of that 
place, thus dividing the whole number into several periods. The number of points 
will show the number of figures in the required root. Find the greatest number whose 
square is contained in the first period at the left; this is the first figure in the root, and 
may be ascertained by the aid of the following table; 

Number i, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81. 
Square Root i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, S, o. 

Subtract ♦he square of the number so determined from the first period and to the 
remainder bring down the second period. Divide the number thus formed, omitting 
the last figure, by twice the part of the root already obtained, and annex the quotient 
to the root and also to the divisor. Then multiply the divisor, as it now stands, by 
the part of the root last obtained, and subtract the product from the number formed, 
as above mentioned, by the first remainder and the second period. If there be 
more periods to be brought down the operation must be repeated, and if, when all 
the periods have been so brought down, there is a remainder, the given number 
has no exact square root. If the number be a decimal fraction, or a whole number 
and a decimal combined, proceed in a similar manner, but observe that a point must 
always occur over the units' figure and on alternate fijyures from it on either side 
to the right and left. A decimal point will be placed in the square root Immediately 



257 Pendulums. 

12,880,338 

F2= == 42,230,616, 

0.305 

and V will be the square root of this number, or 6,498 oscillations per 
hour 

If the dimensions are given in English inches, the numbers 507,109,- 
080 and 12.008 would be employed thus: 

507,109,080: 12.008: : F*: i; 

507,109,080 

F2 = = 42,230,936. 

12.008 

The slight difference in the results is due to the non-equality of the 
two approximate figures given above. Another example is given in 
which it will suffice to indicate the several stages of the calculation. 

Example: What should be the length of a pendulum to give 4,100 
oscillations per hour.-* 

12,880,338 '. X : : 4,100^:1; 
12,880,338 : X : : 16,810,000: i; 

12,880,338 

X = = 0.766 meters (30.158 inches). 

16,810,000 

before bring-ing' down the first decimal period, and in cases where the gfiven number 
has no exact root, it may be approximated to by bringing down successive pairs of 
ciphers. Example ' Extract the square root of 273,529. 

273529(523 
25 

2.15 

204 



1043 



3'29 
3'29 



Applying the above rule, the square of 5 or 25, the largest contained in 27, is sub- 
tracted from the first period, and to the remainder, the second period, 35, is attached. 
The divisor for the dividend so formed is obtained by doubling' the portion of the root 
already determined (r), and annexing 2 to the 10, since 10 will divide twice into 23, 
the dividend with the last figure omitted. The 2 is also added to the quotient as form- 
ing a fig^ure in the mot. and 102 multiplied by it as in ordinary division. The next per- 
iod. 29, having been brought down to the remainder thus obtained, a similar operation, is 
ag-ain gone through, the entire quotient, so far as it has been determined, being each 
time doubled. 



PenduLums. 



258 



Table Showing the Length of a Simple Pendulum 

That performs in one hour any given number of oscillations, from i 
to 20,000, and the variation in this length that will occasion a difference 
of I minute in 24 hours. 

Calculated by E. Gourdin. 



3 


1- 




Length 
e in 24 
meters. 


u 



^ X 

C ^ 


U5 


I^ength 
te in 24 
meters. 


u 

3 







u a 

E § 

3 'C 


c .S E 


.sl| 
its 


E § 


^.5E 

H-1 B. 


c c — 

i«.s 


E _o 


isE 




'0 


^ 




(J 


S 




1^ 1 


S 




tfi 




7; u c 


C/J 




M u 


(/] 




^ u 







>ax 







>^S 







>ax 


20,000 


32.2 


0.04 


13,200 


73.9 


0.10 


8,200 


191.5 


0.26 


19,000 


35.7 


0.05 


13.100 


75.1 


0.10 


8,100 


196.3 


0.27 


18,000 


39.8 


0.05 


13,000 


76.2 


0.10 


8.000 


201.3 


0.27 


17.900 


40.2 


0.06 


12,900 


77.4 


0.11 


7,900 


206.4 


0.28 


17,800 


40.7 


0.ti6 


12,800 


78.6 


0.11 


7,800 


211.7 


0.29 


17,7«0 


41.1 


0.06 


12,700 


79.9 


0.11 


7,700 


217.2 


0.30 


17hOO 


41.6 


0.06 


12,600 


81.1 


0.11 


7,600 


223.0 


0.33 


n.-'ioo 


42.1 


0.06 


12,5 '0 


82.4 


0.11 


7,. 500 


229.0 


0.31 


17,400 


42.4 


0.06 


12,400 


83.8 


O.ll 


7,400 


235.2 


0.33 


17,301) 


43.0 


0.06 


12,300 


85.1 


0.12 


7,300 


241.7 


0.:» 


17,200 


43.5 


0.06 


12,200 


86.5 


0.12 


7,200 


248.5 


0.34 


17.100 


44.0 


0.06 


12,100 


88.0 


0.12 


7,100 


255.7 


0.3» 


17,000 


44.6 


0.06 


12,000 


89.5 


0.12 


7,000 


262.9 


0.36 


16,900 


45.1 


0.06 


11,900 


91.0 


0.12 


6,900 


270.5 


0.37 


16,800 


45.7 


0.06 


11,801) 


92.5 


0.13 


6,8(t0 


278.6 


0.38 


16,700 


46.3 


0.06 


11,700 


94.1 


0.13 


6,700 


286.9 


O.W 


16,000 


46.7 


0.07 


11,600 


95.7 


0.13 


6,600 


295.7 


0.40 


16,500 


47.3 


0.07 


11,500 


97.4 


0.13 


6,. 500 


304.9 


0.41 


16,400 


47.9 


0.07 


11,400 


99.1 


0.13 


6,400 


314.5 


0.43 


16,300 


48.5 


0.07 


11,3()0 


100.9 


0.14 


6,300 


324.5 


0.44 


16,-200 


49.1 


0.07 


ll,2ii0 


102.7 


0.14 


6,200 


335.1 


0.16 


16,100 


49.7 


0.07 


11,100 


104.5 


0-14 


6.100 


34>.2 


0.47 


16,()> 


50.0 


0.07 


11,000 


106.5 


0-14 


6,000 


357.8 


0.48 


li,900 


51.0 


o.or 


10,900 


108.4 


0-15 


5.900 


370.0 


0,50 


15,800 


51.6 


0.07 


10,800 


110.5 


0-15 


5,800 


382.9 


0..52 


15,? '0 


52.3 


0.07 


10,700 


112.5 


0-15 


5,700 


396.4 


0.54 


15,600 


52.9 


0.07 


10,600 


114.6 


0-16 


5,600 


410.7 


0.56 


15,50(» 


5 5.6 


0.07 


10,500 


116.8 


0.16 


5,.500 


425.8 


0.58 


15,4(10 


54.3 


©.OS 


10,400 


119.1 


0-16 


5,400 


440.1 


0.60 


15,300 


55.0 


0.08 


11, .300 


111.4 


0-17 


5,300 


4.58.5 


0.63 


15,200 


55.7 


0.08 


10,200 


123.8 i 


0-17 


5,200 


476.3 


0.65 


15,1(10 


56.5 


0.08 


10,100 


126.3 


0-17 


5,100 


495.2 


0.67 


15.000 


57.3 


0.08 


10,000 


128.8 


0-18 


5,000 


.515,2 


0.70 


14.900 


58.0 


0.08 


9,900 


131.4 


0-18 


4,900 


536.5 


0.73 


14,800 


58.8 


0.08 


9.800 


134.1 


0-18 


4,S00 


559.1 


0.76 


14.700 


59.6 


0.08 


9,700 


136.9 


0-19 


4,700 


583.1 


0.79 


14,(iOO 


60.4 


0.08 


9,600 


139.8 


0-19 


4,600 


60S.7 


0.83 


14,500 


61.3 


0.08 


9,500 


142.7 


0-19 


4..500 


636.1 


0.86 


14,400 


62.1 


0.09 


9,400 


145.8 


0-20 


4,400 


665.3 


0.90 


14,300 


63.0 


0.09 


9,300 


148.9 


0-20 


4,300 


696.7 


0.95 


14,200 


63.9 


0.09 


9,200 


152.2 


0-21 


4,200 


730.2 


0.99 


14,100 


64.8 


0.09 


9,100 


15.5.5 


0-21 


4,100 


766.2 


1.04 


14,000 


65.7 


0.09 


9,000 


159.0 


0-22 


4,tX)0 


805,0 


1.09 


13,901) 


66.7 


0.09 


8,900 


162.6 


0-22 


3,950 


82.5.5 


1.12 


13,800 


67-6 


0.09 


8,800 


166.3 


0-23 


3,900 


8J6.8 


1.15 


13,700 


68-6 


0.(19 


8,700 


170.2 


0.2:i 


3,850 


869.0 


1.18 


13,6^ 


69.6 


0.09 


8,600 


173.7 


0.24 


3,800 


892.0 


1.21 


13,.500 


70.7 


0.09 


8,500 


178.3 


0.24 


3,750 


915.9 


1.25 


13,400 


71-7 


0.10 


8,400 


182.5 


0.25 


3,700 


940.1 


1.28 


13,300 


72-8 


0.10 


8,300 


187.0 


0.25 


3,650 


966.8 


1.31 



259 



Pendulums. 



Table of the Length of a Simple Pendulum, 
(continued.) 



(/) 




To Produce in 


(/) 








c 

.2 


u 


24 Hours 


o 




To Produce 


in 24 Hours 


_« 




1 Minute. 


_^ 




1 Minute. 


1 i 






6 a 

l-^ 
H-i 


Length 
in 








Si 








E 

3 


J3 

c 

V 


ill 


Gain, 
horten t 
illimete 


amber o 
per 


Meters. 


Loss, 

Lengthen by 

Meters. 


Gain, 
Shorten by 

Meters. 


^ 




O "3 


C/3^ 


1900 








3 600 


0.9939 


1.38 


1.32 


3.568 


0.0050 


0.0048 


3,550 


1.0221 


142 


1.36 


1,800 


3 975 


0055 


0.0053 


3,?in() 


10515 


146 


1.40 


1,700 


4.457 


0.0062 


0.0059 


3450 


1.0822 


1.50 


144 


1,600 


5.031 


0070 


0.0067 


3 400 


1.1143 


1.55 


1.48 


1,500 


5 725 


0.0i'80 


0.0076 


3 350 


1.1477 


1.60 


1.53 


1400 


6.572 


0.0091 


0.0087 


3,300 


1.1828 


1.64 


1.57 


1.300 


7.622 


0.0106 


0.0101 


3 250 


1.2194 


1.69 


1.62 


1,200 


8 945 


00124 


0.0119 


3 200 


1.2578 


175 


167 


1,100 


10 645 


0.0148 


0.0142 


3,150 


1 2981 


1.80 


1.73 


1.000 


12880 


0.0179 


0.0171 


3,100 


1.34 '3 


1.86 


178 


900 


15 902 


0.0221 


0.0211 


3,050 


1.3846 


1.93 


1.84 


800 


20 126 


0280 


0.0268 


3,000 


1.4312 


1.99 


1 90 


700 


26.?87 


0365 


0.0350 


2.900 


1.5316 


2.13 


2.04 


600 


35 779 


0497 


0.0476 


2 80J 


1 6429 


2.28 


218 


500 


51 521 


0.0716 


0.0685 


2.700 


1 7669 


2.46 


2 35 


400 


80 502 


0.1119 


0.1071 


2,600 


19054 


265 


2 53 


300 


143. 115 


0.1989 


0.1903 


2,500 


2.0609 


2 87 


2.74 


200 


322 008 


0.4476 


0.4282 


2,400 


2.2362 


311 


2 97 


100 


1,288.034 


1.7904 


1.7131 


2,H00 


2.4349 


3.'-^8 


3 24 


60 


3.577.871 


4 9732 


4.7586 


2.20' I 


2 6612 


3.70 


3.54 


50 


5,152.135 


7.1613 


6.8521 


2,100 


2 9207 


4.06 


3 88 


1 


12,880,337.930 


17,903 6700 


17,130.8500 


2,000 3 2201 


4.48 


4.28 











The numbers given represent the oscillations in an hour of mean time 
of a svnple pendulum, measuring from the point of suspension to the cen- 
ter of a heavj spherical bob attached to a fine thread, and oscillating 
through an exceedingly small arc in a '^acuum. 

Tne compound or material pendulum employed for regulating hor- 
ological trains will give the number of oscillations indicated in the table 
when the length set opposite that number is equal to the distance between 
the centers of suspension and oscillation. 

The assumption that the center of oscillation coincides approximately 
with the point at which the pendulum will rest horizontally on a knife- 
edge, is only legitimate when the rod is very light, and the weight of the 
pendulum acts nearly through the center of the bob. 



Pendulums. 



260 



The watchmaker will do well to employ a small platinum ball, sus- 
pended in front of a carefully graduated vertical rule, by a fine thread 
that can be lengthened or shortened at will. If the point of suspension 
is determined by a clamp that is opened or closed by a set screw, it will 
be easy to adjust this pendulum to the length indicated in the table, and^ 
by making it oscillate side by side with the compound pendulum under 
consideration, to ascertain the approximate position of the center of sus- 
pension of this latter. 

The length of the pendulum giving i oscillation in an hour (i2,8So,- 
337 93 meters, or 507,109,080 inches), affords a useful datum for certain 
calculations with reference to the lengths of pendulums. For an oscilla- 
tion of 2° the lower end will travel through a space of 280 miles. 

In the above table all dimensions are given in meters and millimeters. 
If it is desirable to express them in feet and inches, the necessary con- 
version can be at once effected in any given case by employing the fol- 
lowing conversion table, which will prove of considerable value to the 
watchmaker for various purposes. 



Inches expressed in 


Millimeters 


expressed 


French Lines expressed 


Millimeters and French 


in Inches ar 


d French 




in Inches and 


Lines. 


Lines. 




Millimeters. 




Equal to 




Equ 


al to 


1 0) 

c 


Equal to 














•6 

1 ■= 



















♦-I 




French 


^ 




French 


1 u 








Millimeters 




Inches. 




iXi 


Inches. 


Millimeters 






Lines. 






Lines. 








1 


25 39954 


11.25951 


1 


0.0393708 


0.44329 


1 


0.088414 


2.25583 


2 


5079908 


22.51903 


2 


0.0787416 


0.886^.9 


2 
3 


0.177628 
266441 


4.51100 
70749 


3 


7019862 


33.77854 


3 


0.1181124 


1.32989 


4 


0.355255 


902332 


4 


101.59816 


45.03806 


4 


0.1574832 


1.77318 


5 


444069 


11.27915 


5 


12699771 


56.29757 


5 


0.1968539 


2 21648 


6 


0.532883 


13 53497 


6 


152.39725 


67.55709 





0.2362247 


2 65978 


7 


0.621097 


15 79080 


7 


177.79079 


78 81660 


7 


27.=i5955 


3.10307 


8 
9 


0.710510 
799324 


18.04003 
20.30246 


8 


203 19633 


90 07612 


8 


0.3149664 


3.54637 


10 


888138 


2imS2d 


9 


228 59587 


101 33563 


9 


0,3543371 


3 98966 


11 


0.97H952 


2481412 


10 


253.99541 


112.59515 


10 


0.3937079 


4.43296 


12 


1 005700 


27.06995 



261 Pendulums. 

A meter is the forty-millionth part of a meridian of the earth. A deci- 
meter is the tenth part of a meter. A centimeter is the hundredth part 
of a meter. A millimeter is the thousanth part of a meter. 

I meter 1 is T 39-37079 inches, 

lo decimeter ! ^ . „, , J ^.2800^ feet, 

... y equivalent < "^ ^^ \ 

100 centimeters [ 4. ] 1 09363 yards or 

1000 millimeters J [^ 0.00035 13S niiles 

I square centimeter = o 15501 square inch. 

I square inch = 6 45127 square centimeter. 

I cubic centimeter = 006103 cubic inches. i 

I cubic inch = 16.38618 cubic centimeters. 

To Calculate the Vibrations of a Pendulum. Multiply together 
the number of teeth of the wheels, starting with the one that carries the 
minute hand (which makes one revolution per hour), but omit the escape 
wheel. Multiply together the numbers of leaves of the pinions, com- 
mencing with the one that engages with the center wheel. If the first 
product be divided by the second, the number obtained gives the number of 
revolutions of the escape wheel in an hour. Multiply this figure by twice 
the number of teeth of the escape wheel, and the product is the number 
of single vibrations performed by the pendulum in one hour. The 
vibrations of a balance may be calculated in precisely the same man- 
ner. 

Mercurial Compensation. In the mercurial pendulum with a glass 
jar, the mercury does not answer so quickly to a change of temperature 
as the steel rod, and preference is therefore now generally given to thin 
metal jars; still the elegant appearance of the glass jar in a stirrup ren- 
ders it suitable for show regulators, for which it is still retained. The 
following are the dimensions of a good seconds pendulum of this class: 
Steel rod, .3 inch in diameter, 43 inches long from top of free part of 
suspension spring to bottom of sole of stirrup ; side rods of stirrup, .3 inch 
wide and .125 inch thick; height of stirrup inside, 8 inches, bottom of 
stirrup, .5 inch thick with a recess turned out to receive the jar; glass 
jar 7.6 inches deep and 2 inches in diameter inside, outside 2.25 in diam- 
eter, and 7.8 inches high; height of mercury in the jar about 7.4 inclies; 
the weight of mercury 11 lbs. 12 oz. The steel parts may with advan- 
tage be annealed to guard against the possibility of magnetism. 

The mercury divided between two jars answers quicker to changes of 
temperature. 

Precision clocks with mercurial pendulums have jars larger in diam- 
eter than two ,inches, made of cast iron enameled on the inside, or of 
steel 

Great care should be taken, when filling the mercury jar, to avoid air 
bubbles. The best pls.n is, push the center of a good silk handkerchief 



Pendulums. 262 

into the jar and pour in the mercury through a long boxwood or other 
funnel with but a mere pinhole for the outlet. When the whole of the 
mercury is poured in, carefully draw up the handkerchief by its four 
corners. The jar of mercury, witti a piece of bladder tied over the top, 
may then be subjected to a temperature of about 120° for a week or two. 
It is important to get the mercury as pure as possible for a pendulum. 
A good way of removing impurities is to add sulphuric acid to the mer- 
cury and shake the mixture well. The metal is then washed, and after- 
wards dried on blotting paper. Another method of purifying mercury 
is to put it in a bottle with a little finely-powdered loaf sugar. The bot- 
tle is stoppered and shaken for a few minutes, then opened and fresh air 
blown in with a pair of bellows. After this operation has been repeated 
three or four times, the mercury may be filtered by pouring it into a 
cone of smooth writing-paper, the apex of which has been pierced with 
a fine pin. The sugar and impurities will be retained by the cone. 
Some filter mercury by squeezing it through a piece of fine chamois 
leather. In dealing with mercury, care should be taken to avoid the 
injurious vapor which rises from it even at the ordinary temperature of 
the air, and of course more freely at higher temperatures. 

Wood Rod and Lead Bob. A cheap and good compensating pendu- 
lum may be made with a wood rod and lead bob. For a seconds pen- 
dulum the rod should be .5 inch in diameter, of thoroughly well-seasoned 
straight-grained pine 45 inches long, measuring from the top of the free 
part of the suspension spring to the bottom of the bob. A slit for the 
suspension spring is cut in a brass cap fitting over the top of the rod, to 
which it is secured by two pins. A bit of thin brass tube is fitted to 
the rod where it is embraced by the crutch. The rating screw, .25 inch 
in diameter, is soldered to a piece of brass tubing fitting over the rod 
and secured by a couple of pins. Wooden rods require to be coated with 
something to render them Impervious to the atmosphere. They are 
generally varnished or polished, but painting them answers the purpose 
■well. Mr. Latimer Clark recommends saturating them with melted 
paraffin, The bob, 2.25 inches in diameter and 12 inches high, with a 
hole just large enough to go freely over the wood rod, rests on a wa<:her 
above the rating nut. Shorter pendulums for chime and other clocks 
are made of cherry, mahogany, and ebony, simply because in such small 
sizes pine does not allow of sound attachment to the ends. These 
pendulums have genarally lenticular-shaped bobs. Such rods cost 
scarcely any more than brass or iron, and are infinitely preferable. 

It is essential that the grain of a wood pendulum rod should be per- 
fectly straight, for if the grain is not straight, the rod is likely to bend, 
causing the clock to go very irregularly. 

Importance of Fixing. Whatever kind of pendulum is Used, it will 
not keep time unless it is rigidly fixed. Just as engineer clockmakers 



263 Pendulums. 

invariably make their escape wheels and other moving parts too heavy, 
so clockmakers always seem afraid to put enough metal in their pendu- 
lum cocks and brackets, which have rarely enough base either. The 
beneficial effect of the heavy pendulum bobs, which it has been the cus- 
tom recently to use for regulator and turret clocks, is often quite lost for 
want of sufficient fixing for the pendulum. For a regulator, the pendu- 
lum should be supported on a cast-iron bracket with a base at least lo 
inches square, bolted right through the back of the case, which should 
be not less than an inch and a quarter thick. For a turret clock a 
bracket of a proportional size should be used, bolted to one of the main 
walls of the building, or, if attached to the clock frame, the rigid con- 
nection of the latter with the walls by means of girders or cantilevers 
should not be lost sight of. A timber frame fixing for a turret clock 
pendulum will never be satisfactory. 

Length of Pendulums. One-second pendulums are long enough for 
all but turret clocks, and longer than two-second pendulums should not 
be used. The very long pendulums used by the old clockmakers for 
turret clocks in order to get, as they expressed it, "dominion over the 
clock,'' were unwieldy and unsteady from the action of the wind and 
other causes. The requisite "dominion '' is now obtained by making the 
bob heavier. 

Pendulum Error. The long and short vibrations of a free pendulum 
will only be isochronous if the path described is a cycloid, which is a 
curve described by rolling a circle along a straight line. If the generat- 
ing circle, instead of being rolled on another circle, were rolled along a 
straight edge, it would describe a cycloid. But a pendulum swung freely 
from a point travels through a circular path, and the long arcs are 
performed slower than the short ones. This divergence from the theo- 
retical cycloid was of great importance when the arc described was large, 
as it was of necessity with the verge escapement, and many devices were 
tried to lead the pendulum through a cycloid. With an arc of about 3° 
only, such as regulator pendulums describe now, the divergence is very 
small. 

Escapement Error. The kind of escapement used also affects the 
time of vibration; for instance, it is found that, while with the recoil 
escapement increased motive power and greater arc causes the clock to 
gain, the contrary effect is produced with the dead-beat escapement. 
The pendulum error may, therefore, be aggravated or neutralized by the 
€scapement error. 

Temperature Error. With increase of temperature, the pendulum 
in common with most other substances, lengthens, and the clock loses; 
with decrease of temperature the contrary effect is produced. The 



Pendulum Spring. 264 

object of the compensation pendulum is to meet the error arising from 
change of temperature by keeping the distance between the point of sus- 
pension and the center of oscillation constant. 

Barometric Error. With a decrease in the pressure of the air, and 
consequent fall of the barometer, the pendulum increases its arc of 
vibration; with an increase in the pressure of the air, and consequent 
rise of the barometer, the pendulum diminishes its arc of vibration. In 
the Westminister clock the pendulum vibrates 2.75° on each side of zero^ 
and Sir Edmund Beckett pointed oat that with this large arc the circular 
error just compensates for the barometric error. Where the escapement 
is suitable, this is doubtless the best way of neutralizing the barometric 
error; but it is not applicable to the dead-beat, for extra run on the dead 
faces of the pallets or larger angle of impulse than usual is found to be 
detrimental, as the oil thickens. 

Rolling or Wobbling. The path of a pendulum in plan should oe a 
straight line. Any deviation from this will affect the regularity of its 
timekeeping, A want of squareness in the chops, or a twist in the sus- 
pension spring, will often cause rolling or wobbling. Many clockmakers 
fix the lower end of the spring with but one screw, so that the pendulum 
may hang plumb without danger of binding. If the pallet staff" is not 
perfectly at right angles to the path of the pendulum, rolling may be 
caused by the oblique action of the crutch. This shows the necessity of 
care in adjusting the movement on the seat board in cased clocks, and is 
an argument in favor of attaching the pendulum of a turret clock to the 
frame of the movement, instead of to a separate wall bracket. 

PENDULUM SPRING. The ribbon or ribbons of steel used in 
suspending the pendulum. 

PERRON, M. A celebrated French watchmaker and author. Born 
at Besancon, in 1779. 

PILLAR. Posts of brass used to keep the plates of a watch in posi- 
tion. 

PILLAR Pi-ATE. The plate of a watch to which the pillars are 
attached. 

PINION. The smaller of two toothed wheels which are geared into 
one another. The tooth of a pinion is called a pinion leaf. 

Pinion Grinder and Polisher. The ends of the leaves of pinions, 
when ground flat and polished, add very much to the beauty of a job 
when completed. Proceed to turn down your pinion in the lathe and fit 



265 Pin Pallet Escapement. 

it in the usual manner, ready for finishing. Now select a suitable chuck 
to hold the pinion in the lathe, and take a few copper cartridge shells, 
used in 22 or 32 caliber revolvers, and drill four holes in the end to fit 
the staff of the pinion you wish to polish. Fit a piece of wood about 
three inches long in the open end of the cartridge shells to use as a 
handle; do not allow the handle to enter the shell over one-fourth of an 
inch, so that it will not strike against the pivot of the pinion vvhile polish- 
ing. Now file flat the closed end of the cartridge, and your grinding and 
polishing tool is completed. Insert the pinion in one of the holes of the 
shell so that the flat surface of the shell will coine up squarely against 
the face of the leaves of the pinion. Apply a paste made of emery flour 
and sweet oil, and run the lathe at a high speed, pressing slightly against 
the pinion leaves. Transfer from one hole to another, to insure flatness. 
Glean off the pinion with benzine and examine to see that the marks of 
the turning tool are all out. If not, proceed as before. Take another 
shell prepared in like manner, and use crocus and oil, instead of emery, 
and grind out the scratches of the emery. After removing these, wash 
thoroughly in benzine, and with another copper shell proceed to polish, 
using a paste of diamantine and oil or alcohol. A good polish will soon 
appear. Care must be exercised to see that the woik is thoroughly 
cleaned after each process. The shells can then be laid away in separate 
boxes for future use. During leisure moment's you can prepare a num- 
ber of these shells to fit almost any job, and you will find them very 
handy for many purposes. 

PIN PALLET ESCAPEMENT. An escapement used mostly in 
French clocks, in which it is often placed in front of the dial. The pal- 
lets are formed of semi-circular stones; generally carnelian. 

This excellent escapement (invented by M. Brocot), rarely seen 
except in small French clocks, appears to be worthy of more extended 
use. The fronts of the teeth of the escape wheel are sometimes made 
radial, as shown in Fig. 225; sometimes cut back so as to bear on the 
point only, like the "Graham;" and sometimes set forward so as to 
give recoil to the wheel during the motion of the pendulum beyond the 
escaping arc. The pallets, generally of carnelian, are of semi-circular 
form. The diameter of each is a trifle less than the distance between the 
two teeth of the escape wheel. The angle of impulse in this escapement 
bears direct reference to the number of teeth einbraced bv the pallets. 
Ten is the usual number, as shown in the drawing. The distance 
between the escape wheel and the pallet staff centers should not be less 
than the radius of the wheel multiplied by 1,7. This gives about 4° 
of impulse measured from the pallet staff center. 

English clockmakers rather object to this escapement on account of 
the difficulty of keeping oil to the pallets, which is aggravated if there is 
much space between the root of the pallet stone and the face of the 



Pin Vise. 



266 



wheel. The effect of the want of oil is much more marked if the pallets 
are made of steel instead of jewel. Any tendency of this escapement to 
set is generally met by flattening the curved impulse faces of the 
(pallets. 




Fig. 225. 

PIN VISE. An improved form of pin vise is that shown in Fig. 226, 
manufactured by A.J. Logan. It is hollow throughout its entire length 




Fig. 226. 
and closes together, the same as a chuck on the American lathe. It 
will hold a small drill or wire perfectly true and will be found very use- 
ful for many purposes. 



267 



Pin Wheel Escapement. 



PIN WHEEL ESCAPEMENT. The pin wheel escapement was 
invented by Lepaute about 1753. A clock escapement analogous in its 
action to the "Graham.'' The impulse is given by nearly half-round 
pins standing out from the face of the escape wheel. The one advan- 
tage over the Graham is that the pressure on the pallets is always down- 
wards, so that excessive shake in the pallet staff hole, which may be 




Fig. 227* 

looked for in the course of time, especially in large clocks, would not 
affect the amount of impulse. 

This escapement is used principally in turret clocks. The chief objec- 
tion to it practically, is the difficulty of keeping the pins lubricated, the 
oil being drawn away to the face of the wheel. To prevent this a nick is 

*a. Escape Wheel. b and c. Pallets. 



Pitkin. 2G8 

sometimes cut around the pins, close to the wheel, but this weakens the 
pins very much. The best plan is to keep the pallets as close as they 
can be to the face of the wheel without touching. 

Lepaute made the pins semi-circular, and placed alternately on each 
side of the wheel so as to get the pallets of the same length. This 
requires double the number of pins, and there is no real disadvantage in 
having one pallet a little longer than the other, provided the short one is 
put outside, as shown in the drawing. Sir Edmund Beckett introduced 
the practice of cutting a piece off the bottoms of the pins, which is a dis- 
tinct improvement, for if the pallet has to travel past the center of the 
pin with a given arc of vibration before the pin can rest, the pallets 
must be very long unless very small pins are used. 

The escaping arc is generally 20, and the diameter of the pins is then 
40 measured from the pallet staff hole. 

Then with a given diameter of pin, to find the mean length of pallets, 
divide the given diameter by .069. 

Or if the mean length of the pallets is given, the diameter of pins may 
be found by multiplying the given length by .069. 

The opening between the extreme points of the pallets = 2°, that is, 
half the diameter of the pins. 

With an escaping arc of 3° the mean length of the pallet arms is ten 
times the diameter of the pins. 

The angle of impulse is divided between the pins and the pallets, and 
care must be taken that the pallets are not cut back too much. When a 
pin escapes from one pallet the bottom of the succeeding pin must fall 
safely on the rest of the other pallet. It is best before finishing the im- 
pulse planes to place the pallets in position and mark them off with ref- 
erence to the pins. The thickness of the two pallets and one pin contained 
between them equals, less drop, which is very small, the space between 
two pins from center to center. The pallets are of steel, hardened at 
the acting parts, and screwed to a collar on the pallet staff. The rests 
are slightly rounded so as to present less surface to the pins, and the 
curves struck from a little below the pallet staff hole so as to be hardly 
"dead." The pins should be of gun-metal, or very hard brass, or alumin- 
ium bronze, round when screwed into the wheel, and cut to shape in 
an engine afterwards. 

PITKIN, HENRY AND JAMES F. These two brothers, 
opened up a small factory in Hartford, Conn., in 1838, for the manufac- 
ture of watches. The movement, which was known as the *' Pitkin 
Watch," and which is shown in Fig. 228, was the first machine-made 
watch manufactured in America. It was a three quarter plate, slow 
train and about the diameter of the modern i6-size movement. The 
machinery used in its manufacture was very crude, and was all made by 
the Pitkin brothers. The cost of manufacture was so great, however. 



2(59 



Pivot. 



that the Pitkin brothers could not compete with the cheap foreign 
Avatches then imported, and shortly after movinsf the factory to New 
York, which they did in 1841, 
the project was abandoned. The 
total product of the Pitkins was 
about Soo movements. 

PIVOT. The end of an arbor 
or shaft that rests in a support or 
bearing. 

Length of Balance Pivots. 

Saunier recommends the reinoval 
of the endstone to see that the 
pivot projects enouo^h beyond the 
pivot hole when the plate is 
inverted. Remove the cock and 
detach it from the balance. 




Fig. 228. 



Take off the balance spring with its collet from the latter and place 
it on the cock inverted, so as to see whether the cock is central 
when the outer coil is midway between the curb pins. Remove the cock 
endstone and endstone cap, place the top balance pivot in its hole and see 
that it projects a little beyond the pivot hole. Place the balance in the 
calipers to test its truth, and at the same time to see that it is in poise. It 
must be remembered, however, that the balance is sometimes put out 
of poise intentionally. See Poising the Balance. 

The Play of Pivots. Saunier gives the following rules for the play 
of escapement pivots: In the cylinder escapement, about one-sixth the 
diameter of the pivot; in the duplex escapement, about .1 the diameter 
of the pivot; in the lever escapement, about one-eighth the 
diameter of the pivot. A large hole causes the pitching of the depths to 
vary with position, and a deficient play renders the escapement more 
sensitive to thickening of the oil. There is less inconvenience when the 
play is somewhat in excess than when it is deficient. In determining 
the play of train wheel i>ivots, proceed as follows: Allow the train to 
run down, and if it does so noisily, or by jerks, it may be assumed that 
some of the depths are bad, in consequence either of the teeth being 
badly formed, or the holes too large, etc. To test the latter point, cause 
the wheels to revolve alternately in opposite directions by applying a 
finger to the barrel or center wheel teeth, at the same time noting the 
movement of each pivot in turn, in its hole. A little practice will soon 
enable the workman to judge whether the play is correct. The running 
down of the train will also indicate whether any pivots are bent. It is 
important that the center pivots project beyond the holes in the plate and 
bridge. 



Pivot. 270 

To Straighten Pivots. Saunier recommends that a number of straight 
holes be drilled in a plate at exactly right angles to its surface. Introduce 
the pivot into a hole that it fits with very little play, and redress it by 
causing the staff to rotate, at the same time holding the plate in the hand. 
Caution is necessary, since there is some risk of bending the pivot too 
far. 

The Friction of Train Pivots. It is very important to reduce the 
friction of the wheel pivots to a minimum quantity, and to make it con- 
stant, so that the motive power be transmitted with the greatest possible 
uniformity to the balance or pendulum, which is necessary to enable the 
latter to maintain its arc of oscillation of the same magnitude. The fric- 
tion of the pivots is due to the pressure of the motive power and the 
weight of the wheels. The wheel work nearest the motive power must 
have strong pivots, so that they possess sufficient resistance, neither wear 
the pivot holes to one side nor enlarge them, by which the friction would 
be increased, and at the same time alter the true point of engagement. 
In tenor with the distance of the wheels from the motive power, the 
thickness of their pivots must decrease because these latter sustain less 
pressure, and are subject to a greater velocity than the first parts. 

Pivoting Cylinders. It often happens that cylinders are broken 
while turning down pivots. To avoid this proceed as follows: Select a 
piece of silver or German silver joint wire, the opening of which is 
slightly larger than the diameter of the cylinder (lower end); cut off a 
piece the length of the cylinder proper, leaving the pivot projecting 
through. Fill the cylinder with lathe wax and slip on the little piece of 
joint wire while the cement is quite warm. Proceed to true up by the 
pivot in the usual way and when the wax is quite cold, turn down and 
polish the pivot before removing from the lathe. If care is used in cut- 
ting the joint wire the proper length, it will answer as a gauge for the 
length of the cylinder. If a joint wire is properly cemented on the cylin- 
der, it is almost impossible to break it. The lower part of the cylinder 
can be left in this condition and the upper part can be turned down to 
fit the balance, hair spring, collet and pivot. After this is done remove 
from the lathe and dissolve the cement in alcohol in a bottle. 

Shape of Pivots. Pivots must be hard, round and well polished; 
their shoulders are to be flat, not too large, with ends well rounded off, so 
that they do not wear the cap jewel. The jewel holes must be round, 
smooth and not larger than is requisite for the free motion of the pivot 
which is surrounded with oil. Their sides must be parallel to those of the 
pivots, so that they sustain the pressure of the pivot equally at all points 
of their length. The holes, if of brass or gold, must have been ham- 
mered sufficiently hard, so that the pores of the metal are closed to pre- 
vent too rapid a wear. It is well if the oil sinks are of a size that will 



271 



Pivot Gauge. 



accommodate a sufficient quantity of oil, which, if too little, would soon 
dry out or become thickered with the worn off particles of the metal. The 
under turniners of the pinion leaves are conical, but in such a way that 
the thicker part be nearest to the pivot, because by this disposition the oil 
is retained at the pivot by attraction, and does not seek to spread into the 
pinion leaves, as is often the case, especially with flat watches, in which 
this provision is frequently slighted. 

PIVOT GAUGE. A steel plate with tapered slit for measuring the 
diameter of pivots. 

PIVOT POLISHER. The pivot polisher is used for grinding and 
polishing conical and straight pivots and shoulders. It is also useful for 
drilling, polishing or snailing steel wheels, milling out odd places in 
plate or bridge where only a part of a circle is to be removed, etc. The 
circular base being graduated to degrees, it can be set at any angle. The 
spindle has a taper hole for 
drill chucks, which makes the 
fixture very useful for drilling 
either in the center or eccen- 
tric, and by using the gradua- 
tions on the pulley of the head- 
stock an accurately spaced 
circle of holes may be drilled. 
Fig. 229 is the American 
Watch Tool Company's pol- Fig. 229. 

isher; Fig. 230, the Mosely, and Fig. 231, the Rivett pattern. 

The polisher is used as follows: After the pivot is turned to proper 
shape, put on your polisher (spindle parallel with lathe bed), with lap 




back of pivot. Use cast iron lap first, 
ders, and round corners for conical.) 



(Square corners for square shoul- 
Lap for conical shoulder can be 
readily cornered with a fine file, 
and cross-grind with fine oil 
stone to remove any lines made 
by graver. Lines on end can be 
removed same way, or in fingers 
rubbed on piece of ground glass 
which has on it a paste of oil 
stone and oil well mixed. 

This will rapidly bring them 

up to a sharp corner nicer than 

Fig. 230. by the graver. On the iron laps 

use No. I crocus or very fine oil stone powder, well ground down in oil 

to a paste. When roughed out to your liking, wipe off the crocus, and 

with a little oil touch the pivot gently ; repeat the second time. Then 




Pivot Polisher. 



272 



change lap for one of box-wood, and use crocus No. 4, verv fine and 
ground down to paste. Proceed as with first lap, being careful at all 
times to keep the lap properly oiled and not pressed too hard against 




Fig. 231. 

the work, particularly in the last operation. Also be sparing of your 
grinding or polishing material. About three specks of polish with point 
of small knife is sufficient. Bring the lap up carefully against the work 




Fig. 232. 

until spread all the way around, then proceed, bearing in mind that 
grinding is not polishing, and that to polish nicely the work and lap 
must be very nearly the right shape. To thoroughly clean the laps, dip 

in benzine. 

Fig. 232 illustrates the Johanson pol- 
isher, which is one of the latest on the 
market. Fig. 233 shows a front view of 
the same machine. It consists of a 
shaft mounted in nicely fitted boxes, 
adapted to give a lateral motion, which 
is controlled bv set collars on the shaft 
as shown. The front end of the shaft 
Fig. 233. is bored to receive the tapers of the 




273 



Pivot Polisher. 



cutting tools, and also with an outside taper to hold the laps, the laps and 
cutters being shown at Fig. 234, while the other end has a knob to enable 
the fingers to control the lateral motion of the shaft as desired. Pulleys 
of hard rubber are fixed upon the shaft and two idlers are mounted on a 




Fig. 234. 

vertical stud at the rear. The boxes which carry the shaft are swiveled 
upon two screws in the base plate and are controlled by a lever, as shown 
in Fig. 233, or they may be held rigidly in position by a set screw shown 
under the lever. This constitutes the tool proper. When it is to be used 




Fig. 235. 

in the hand rest, a stud, shown in Fig. 233, is screwed into the base plate 
and supports the tool in the hand rest, so as to be readily adjustable in any 
direction. When used in the slide rest, this stud is removed and the 
plate clamped between two hollow cylindrical supports by a stud which 



Pivoted Detent. 274 

is slipped into the groove of the slide rest and fastened by a nut at the 
top, the whole forming a turret-like mount of great strength, as shown 
in Fig. 232, and upon which the machine can be readily swiveled in any 
direction. 

Other cutters and laps may, of course, be used with the machine, so 
that it is capable of a wide range of work. 

Fig. 235 illustrates the Hardinge pattern, which is a hand polisher. It 
is attached to the lathe bed the same as the T or hand rest. Grindinir and 
polishing slips are furnished with this machine, which is very simple and 
inexpensive. 

PIVOTED DETENT. A form of detent mostly seen in French 
chronometer escapements, which moves on pivots instead of through a 
weak spring, as in the English and American escapements. 

PLATE. The plates of a watch are the discs of brass which form 
the foundation of the movement. The chief plate, called the pillar plate, 
lies underneath the dial; the side of it next the dial is recessed to con- 
tain the motion work; on the other side the pillars are fixed. Unless the 
watch has a "bar movement " there is another plate, kept a little distance 
from the pillar plate by the pillars, called the top plate. In full plate 
watches this plate, like the pillar plate, is circular. In three-quarter 
plate watches there is a piece cut out of the top plate sufficiently large 
to allow the balance to move in the same horizontal plane as the top 
plate. In half-plate watches the fourth wheel arbor is cut short, and its 
upper end carried by a cock, so as to permit of the use of a larger balance 
than would otherwise be the case. The plates of a clock are the two 
pieces of brass which receive the pivots of the train. 

POISING TOOL. A tool used for poising or ascertaining if the 
metal in a balance is evenly disposed around the axis. See Balance. 

POLISHING. See Cleansing, Pickliyig and Polishing. For polishing 
of steel, pivots, etc. See Steely Pivots, etc. 

POOLE, JOHN. An English chronometer maker of considerable 
fame and the inventor of the auxiliary compensation which bears his 
name. He was born in 1818 and died in 1867. 

POTENCE. A bracket used for supporting the lower end of the 
balance staff in full plate watches. 

POTENTIAL ENERGY. Power to do work. A mainspring 
when wound possesses potential energy. The pressure exerted, multi- 
plied by the distance traveled in winding, would be the measure 



275 Pump Center. 

of its potential energy. The potential energy of a raised clock weight is 
equal to its weight multiplied by the distance through which it can 
fall. The potential energy in foot-pounds of any raised weight = w /^y 
where w is the weight in pounds and // the vertical height in feet, 

PUMP CENTER. The small, pointed steel shaft in the center of a 
universal head, which is used for centering the work. 

PUSH PIECE. The movable part of a pendant used for opening 
the case. The small movable projection on the side of a case which is 
pushed in when setting ihe hands. 

QUARE, DANIEL. Born in 1632 and died in 1724. He was the first 
to apply the concentric minute hand to watches and clocks and was the 
inventor of the repeating watch, 

\ 
QUARTER RACK. The rack that regulates the striking of the 
quarters in a clock or repeater. 

QUARTER SCREWS. The four timing screws in a compensation 
balance. 

RACK LEVER. A watch escapement, said to have been invented 
by Abbe Hautefeuille in 1734. The lever terminated in a rack, which 
worked into a pinion on the balance staflf. 

RAMSAY, DAVID. Clockmaker to James I., and the first master 
of the Clockmakers' Company. He died in 1655. 

RATCHET. A wheel having pointed teeth and fixed to an arbor to 
to prevent it turning backward, A click or pawl falls in between the 
teeth of the wheel and prevents il turning backward. See Click. 

RATING NUT. A round nut, with a milled edge, screwed to the 
pendulum rod ot a clock. It supports the pendulum bob, and by turn- 
ing it to the right or left, the bob is raised or lowered, and the timekeep- 
ing of the clock altered. In the finest clocks a scale is engraved around 
the rating nut to serve as a guide to the amount it is turned. 

RAYMOND, B. W. A Chicago capitalist and the first president of 
the Elgin National Watch Company. The first movement turned out 
from the factory, April i, 1867, was named the B. W. Raymond in his 
honor. This movement was a success from the start and has done much 
toward establishing the reputation of the Elgin Company, Mr, Raymond 
died April 5, 1S83, 



Recoil Escapement. 



276 



RECOIL ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in which the teeth are 
pressed backward, or recoiled, by the pallets after coming to rest, as in 
the Anchor Escapement, 

RED STUFF. Sesquioxide of iron, used for polishing brass and 
steel by mixing with oil. Crocus, rouge and clinker are various grades 
of red stuff. 

REGNAULD. One of the first French clockmakers who attempted 
to compensate a clock against the effects of heat and cold. 

REGULATOR. The small steel hand or lever to the shorter end of 
which the curb pins are attached, and which by moving from side to 
side practically shortens the hair spring. See Curb Pins. 

2. A standard clock having a compensating pendulum and used for 
timing watches and clocks. 

REID, THOMAS. Born in 1750 and died in 1834. He was a cele- 
brated Scotch horologist and the author of a treatise on watch and 
clockmaking. 

REMONTOIRE. A spring or other 'device which is wound by a 
clock and discharged at regular intervals. Its function is generally 
either to impart impulse to the pendulum or to cause the hands of the 
clock to jump over certain spaces. Although the word is derived from 
the French, it is not now used in that language, except to signify a stem- 
wind movement. 

REPAIR CLAMPS. The magic repair clamps shown in Figs. 236 




Fig. 236. Fig. 237. 

to 238, are used for holding various kinds of work in position, while 
repairing, soldering, etc. In addition to the uses shown in the 



277 



Repeater. 



illustrations, it is also applicable for dozens of operations that will suggest 
themselves to the possessor. 

It is so arranged that the end screws can be used as feet and the 
handles as a support (as shown in the illustrations), so that the tool with 




Fig. 238. 

the work in it will stand up, leaving the operator free to use charcoal or 
asbestos block with one hand and the blow pipe with the other. It is 
especially valuable for holding dials, when soldering on feet. 

REPEATER. A watch which indicates the time by repeating it by 
means of gongs or bells. There are hour, quarter, half-quarter, five 
minute, and minute repeaters. They were first made about 1676, and 
are said to be the invention of Edward Barlow, a clergyman. About the 
same time Daniel Quare, a watchmaker of London, was working on a 
model of a repeating watch. Barlow applied for a patent on his inven- 
tion and Quare, hearing of it, determined to resist him, and succeeded in 
getting the backing of the Clockmakers' Company, who petitioned the 
king not to make the grant until the council could see and examine 
Quare's watch. The council investigated both watches and finally 
decided in favor of Quare, his watch having but one push piece, while 
in Barlow's there were two. Fig. 239 illustrates a half-quarter repeating 
watch by Nicole & Company. The principle of all repeating watches 
is the same, though some arrange the parts somewhat differently. 

The small mainspring which supplies the power for repeating, is 
wound by pushing around a slide that projects from the band of the case. 
This slide is the extremity of a lever which presses against a pivoted 



Repeater. 378 

rack engaging with a segment on the barrel arbor. There is underneath 
a segment of greater radius containing twelve ratchet teeth. The num- 
ber of hours to be struck is regulated by the position of the hour snail in 
precisely the same way as the striking work of a clock. At twelve 
o'clock the lowest step of the snail is presented to the stop, so that the 




Fig. 239. 

rack can be traversed its full extent. In returning, each one of the 
twelve ratchet teeth in turn lifts the hammer and strikes the hours. The 
quar'tec rack has two sets of three ratchet teeth each, and as the slide is 
moved round the all-or-nothing piece, as it is called, releases the quarter 
rack, against which a spring is constantly pressing. The quarter rack is 
stopped by the quarter snail. After the hours are struck a curved finger, 
or gathering pallet, on the barrel arbor presses the quarter rack to its 
original position, and in passing each of the ratchet teeth, by pushing 
aside a pallet fixed to the same arbor as the hammer, strikes a blow. 
Whether one, two, or three quarters are struck depends, of course, on 
the position of the quarter snail. 

The half-quarter rack, with but one ratchet tooth, is placed on top, 
and works with the quarter rack. Between each quarter and seven 
minutes past, it yields as it passes the lifting pallet. 

The quarter snail, attached to the cannon pinion, is doubled with 
steps just dividing each other, so that after the half-quarter the quarter 
rack gets round a little nearer to the center of the snail than the half- 
quarter rack. This allows the spring catch which is mounted on the 



279 Repeater. 

quarter-rack, to lock the half-quarter rack, and then, after the quarters 
have struck, it lifts the hammer and strikes one more blow. 

The hour snail is inounted on a star wheel, as shown, and the star 
wheel is moved by a pin in the quarter snail, or rather in the loose sur- 
prise piece beneath, which flies out to the position shown in the drawing 
directly the star wheel is moved. The surprise then prevents the quarter- 
rack reaching any step of the quarter snail, and consequently no quarters 
are struck. When the pin in the surprise piece comes round to the star 
wheel again, the pressure of the pin on a tooth of the star wheel causes 
the surprise piece to retire so that the third quarter and half quarter can 
be struck, but as the star wheel jumps forward the succeeding tooth flirts 
out the surprise. 

The hammer arbors go through the plate, and the hammers areon the 
other side. The gongs of steel wire, fixed at one end to the plate, curl 
round it and lie between the plate and the end of the case. 

There is also on the other side of the plate a train of runners for regu- 
lating the speed of striking. The centers of the wheels are indicated by 
dots on the left hand of the barrel. The last pinion is not furnished with 
a fly as in clocks, but there is a screw with an eccentric he.d, by means 
of which the depth of the last pinion can be increased or made shallower. 
This is found to be sufficient regulation, though latterly an escape wheel 
and pallets have been applied at the end of the train of runners to regulate 
the speed in some repeaters. This is perhaps more scientific than mak- 
ing a bad depth, but the pallet staff holes are found to wear very much, if 
not jeweled. 

Five-minute repeaters seem likely to supersede all other kinds by reason 
of their simplicity, for they evidently involve but little more work in 
construction than quarter repeaters, and yet give the time more closely 
than half-quarters. 

Rusty Gongs. They may be improved by polishing, first with a 
half-round polisher, and then finished with boxwood polisher on cork. 

Causes of Failure. The flat shoulder of fly pinion in contact 
with a hollow sink. In a short time the shoulder will cut or wear a 
groove, fitting itself in the sink, and will stick in it, and when much worn 
no power of the spring will drive the train on. The pinion's shoulders 
should always act on a flat, not in a hollow surface; this is applicable to 
ordinary trains, as watches stop sometimes through end shakes being 
wrongly given by hollow-sinking the plate with a rounding face instead 
of a flat cutter. 

Fly pinion the wrong size, or a little out of round. If the depth with 
such a pinion be altered to regulate the speed, it may stop the train. 

The mainspring being bad and unadjwstable, or binding in the barrel, 
sometimes through oil that has become too thick. 



Repeater. 280 

Too much oil applied, and very often in the wrong places. The studs 
and acting spring ends are essential places for the smallest portion of oil; 
but care should be taken that no oil flows between the racks, or between 
he surprise piece and snail, and none should be given to the case slide. 

To Bend Gong Wires. The bending of a gong wire in a repeating 
watch, in order to free it from any point it touches, often results in dimin- 
ishing the sound considerably. In such a case, Immisch advises as fol- 
lows: If the spring touches on the outside and must consequently be 
bent inward, it should be laid upon a convex piece of brass correspond- 
ing in shape with the inner side of the spring at the place where it is 
to be bent; then, if the outside be slightly hammered with the sharp 
edge of a hammer, the small indentations produced will cause the out- 
side to lengthen a little and the inside to contract in proportion. The 
change of form will be very gradual, and the granular disturbance, being 
spread over a large area, will not be great enough to affect the tone in 
the least. The more a spring is bent to and fro in any direction, the 
more it will lose its elastic force. In soft springs especial care should 
be taken to make any change very gradual, repeating the operation 
oftener rather than to bend too much at one time, and thereby necessi- 
tate the bending back of the spring. If a perfectly adjusted and very 
soft spring should be bent and brought bacK again to exactly its for- 
mer position, the vibrations would be no longer isochronous, and by re- 
peating the experiment the elastic force, or the spring curve, will become 
so small compared with that possessed by the body of the spring, that 
instead of exercising a control over the latter, its motion becomes sub- 
servient to it. A harder spring will bear a much greater amount o:J 
manipulation, and a Breguet spring, the form of which in itself necessi- 
tates a certain amount of bending, must always have a greater degree 
of hardness than that necessary for helical springs, in order that the 
advantage possessed by this form should be of the greatest possible use. 
It is also necessary that a certain time should elapse before ascertaining 
the result of the change affected. Metallic bodies possessing any degree 
of elasticity, if forced into a different shape, do not retain the newly 
acquired shape exactly, but have a tendency to return in some degree 
toward that shape from which they have been forced. The reactionary 
force becomes gradually less active, until after a time it ceases altogether. 
The time required for the shape to become permanent differs greatly 
with the degree of elasticity. It is sometimes desirable to bend a spring, 
but the repairer, being afraid of breaking it, abandons the idea. Suppose 
it is desirable to bend a side click spring of a Swiss bridge watch, which, 
by the way, is generally made of poor steel. Take hold of the end in 
which the screw goes with a pair of brass-nosed sliding tongs, hold- 
ino- it in the left hand ; then press a piece of brass against the click, bend- 
ing it in the direction desired, and at the same time holding it over 



281 



Repeater. 



the flame of a spirit lamp until the center, or spring part, becomes a 
straw, or d;irk red color. The fact that spring-tempered steel is brought 
to a dark red-blue twenty times over, will not reduce it below its former 
temper; on the contrary, it will tend to equalize and improve the temper, 
and render it less liable to break. Suppose a cylinder pivot, or any pivot 
of the escapement parts are bent, and you wish to straighten it by this 
process ; take a small brass ring, fit it to the pivot and hold over the flame 
of the lamp, bending it at the same time in the desired direction. 



Repeating Attachments. Fig. 240 illustrates the repeating attach- 
ment recently patented and put on the market by the American Repeat- 
ing Watch Factory, of Elizabeth, N. J. The complete mechanism is 
arranged on a small plate which can be fastened to any of the American 
made movements by the aid of a few screws, and the construction is such 
that it can be wound either by the stem or by the repeating slide, the 
latter being similar to those used on all Swiss repeaters. The stem wind- 
ing pattern can be applied to Elgin 16 size hunting, Illinois and Dueber- 
Hampden 16 sizes, Waltham 14 sizes and Lancaster 18 sizes, all hunting 
movements. The repeating slide 
style can also be applied to these 
watches. The slide pattern is adapted 
particularly to Elgin 16 size open 
face and Elgin interchangeable 16 
sizes and to Waltham and Columbus 
16 size hunting and open face, Wal- 
tham 14 sizes, Illinois 16 sizes in open 
face, Howard 16 and 18 sizes and 
Paillard non- magnetic watches, both 
open and hunting. The attachment 
can also in various ways be applied to 
other American and Swiss watches. 
Fig. 240 represents the attachment 
applied to an Elgin 16 size hunting movement. To attach this 
mechanism to a watch, first wind its mainspring completely and then 
let it down only one-quarter turn. Set stop wheel in position with its 
shoulder against the stop piece, to prevent further winding, place both 
racks above the stop wheel and let the mainspring drive the parts back 
to their normal position. The lever winding parts are arranged under the 
repeater plate and are similar in construction to those used in Swiss repeat- 
ers. The stemwinding connection is composed of a ratchet wheel which is 
geared with the crown wheel of the stem-winding mechanism of the 
watch, and a ratchet stem, that passes through the wheel and both 
watch plates, carrying on its other end a pinion, that gears into the re- 
peater barrel wheel, which winds its mainspring when the stem is turned 
to the left. 




Fig. 240. 



Repeating Rack. 



282 



REPEATING RACK. A rack in a repeating watch which is 
sliifted one tooth for each blow that is struck 

REPEATING SLIDE. The sHde on the band of a repeating 
watch case that is moved round to set the repeating work in motion. 

RESILIENT ESCAPEMENT. A form of the lever escapement 
in which the lever yields, when pressed upon the outside by the impulse 
pin, and allows the pin to pass. See Lever Escapement. 

Rest. The T'-shaped piece of metal attached to the lathe bed and 
on which the graver, peg wood, polisher, etc., is rested. It is also known 
as T rest and hand rest. 

Back Rest. Among the many tools that watchmakers can make for 
themselves, one of the most useful is the tool illustrated in Fig. 241. It 
>is a modification of what machinists call a " back rest." The only 




Fig. 241. 

points in which it differs from that employed by the machinist is the 
shape of the jaws and the mode of fastening to the lathe bed. a shows 
the rest in position on the lathe bed, looking from right hand end of 



283 



Ring Gauge. 



bed;^ shows the base, looking from above, in direction of arrow X'; 
C shows bolt for binding it to the lathe bed. It does not seem as though 
it needed much explanation, as it will readily be seen that the head d of 
bolt, passes up through the longitudinal slot in lathe bed, through the 
round hole in base of back rest, and slipped back into slot z«, when about 
half a turn of the nut^ binds it firmly to the bed. The washer ^, on 
the end of binding screw, is riveted or soldered in place, and should be 
close enough to nut^to allow only about half a turn to loosen the bolt, 
as that is sufficient, and more would be time lost in running the nut back 
and forth to bind or loosen the rest. It will be seen that when the nut 
£■ is slackened it binds against the washer k, and it will stay there, and 
be just where you want it when you want to use it again. The jaws are 
of hard brass; about three sets, with points of different widths, will 
cover a good range of work. Those shown in Fig. 341 are suitable for 
such work as pivoting small French clock pinions, etc. It will be ob- 
served that the jaws are so made that they may be changed by slightly 
loosening the screws. The screw heads should have thin steel washers 
under them. 

RING GAUGE. A gauge used by jewelers for measuring the inter- 
nal dimensions of finger rings. 

RIVETING STAKE. A steel block, pierced with a number of dif- 
ferent sized holes. See Staking Tool. 



ROBIN, ROBERT. A celebrated F>ench watch and clock maker. 
He built many large turret 
clocks for the public buildings of 
France. Born in 1742 and died 
in 1799. 

ROCKING BAR. The steel 
bar which carries the interme- 
diate wheels in stem wind move- 
ments. Sometimes called the 
yoke. 

ROLLER REMOVER. 

There are numerous designs in 
the way of roller removers upon 
the market, but lack of space 
prevents description and illustra- 
tions of them. Fig 242 illustrates Fig. 242. 
the Hardinge remover, while Fig. 243 illustrates the Sheehan. They 
are both excellent tools and do the work in a satisfactory manner. 




Romilly. 284 

ROMILLY, M. A clever Swiss horologist. He was held in hign 
esteem in Paris, where he passed the greater portion of his life. He was 
born at Geneva in 17 14 and died in 1796. 




Fig. 243. 

ROSE CUTTER. A hollow cutter, as shown in Fig. 244, used for 
reducing the size of wire, as in forming heads when making screws. 

ROSE ENGINE. A form of lathe in which the rotary movement 
of the mandrel may be combined with a lateral, reciprocating movement 
of the tool rest, the result being a movement of 
eccentric character. In this way many curves of an 
epicycloid or hypocycloid character and of great 
variety and beauty may be obtained by varying the 
rate of speed between the lathe mandrel and the 
J^tg. 244. ig^j screw, or splined rod which governs the motion 

of the tool post in the slide rest. The change gears are handled as 
in the ordinary engine lathe. Another form of this engine has a very 
heavy head, formed of a series of disks, circular in form, and placed con- 
centrically on the shaft, so that they resemble a cone pulley having a 
large number of steps. These disks, instead of being true circles, are 
formed of a great number of facets, so that the discs constitute polygons 
of 64. 120, 180, etc., sides. The central mandrel bears an eccentric chuck 
and has lateral play, so that the facets, striking on a rigid roller, throw 
the mandrel alternately in and out of center, thus bringing the work regu- 
larly to and away from the cutting tool, making the tool cut a lozenge- 
shaped chip each time a facet on the disc is encountered by the roller. 
The work being held eccentrically in the chuck, these chips, or digs, are 
very fine and close at the center, and enlarged proportionately as they 
reach the outside of the watch case or other object being ornamented. 



285 



Rouge. 



The work is done with tools which have been snarpened and polished so 
carefully as to make a " bright cut" on the metal, and the operator turns 
the lathe with one hand and watches the progress of the work with a 
glass. 

ROUGE. See Red Stuff. 



ROUNDING UP ATTACHMENT. The Webster rounding up 
attachment, shown in Fig. 245, is a very useful adjunct to the lathe. It 
is attached to the top of the slide-rest. To operate, a pointed taper 
chuck is put in the lathe spin- 
dle. The wheel to be rounded 
up is put into the fixture and 
the wheel adjusted vertically 
so that the point of the lathe 
center will be at the center of 
the thickness of the wheel, 
after which the lower spindle 
of the fixture should not be 
moved. Now remove the 
wheel, also the taper chuck, 
and put the saw arbor, with 
the rounding-up cutter, in the 
lathe spindle, and adjust the 
longitudinal slide of the slide- 
rest so that the rounding-up 
cutter will be back of and in Fig. 245. 

line with the center of the rounding-up fixture, after which the longi- 
tudinal slide of the slide-rest should not be moved. Now put the wheel 
and supporting collet in place, and proceed with the rounding-up. 




ROY, PETER, Watchmaker to the King of France. Died 1785. 
Author of two works on horology. 



ROZE, A. C. An eminent French watchmaker, 
died in 1862. 



Born in 1812, and 



RUBY PIN. The impulse pin in the lever escapement. 

RUBY ROLLER. The roller in the duplex escapement which 
locks the escape wheel teeth. 



SAFETY PIN. In the lever escapement, a pin that when the hands 
are turned backward, prevents the pallets leaving the escape wheel. 



Safety Pinion. 286 

SAFETY PINION. A center pinion which allows the barrel to- 
recoil when the mainspring breaks. 

SAPPHIRE FILE. A piece of flat brass to which a piece of sapphire, 
previously flattened, is attached by means of shellac. It is used for work- 
ing upon garnet pallets and other soft stones. The sapphire is ground 
upon a diamond mill, and its surface rendered coarse, or fine, according 
to the mill used. A strip of copper and diamantine is sometimes used 
instead of sapphire files. 

SCREWS. Odd sized screws, not to be had from the material dealers, 
may be readily made by means of the screw plate and rose cutter. The 
rose cutter is quite a valuable adjunct to the lathe, and is fixed to the 
spindle in the same manner as the chuck, and will be found exceedingly 
useful for quickly reducing pieces of wires for screws, etc , to a gauge. 
For screws, the wire should be of a proper size for the screw heads, and 
a cutter selected with the hole the size of the finished screw. The point 
of the wire is rounded to enter the hole of the cutter, against which it is 
forced by the back center of the lathe, the serrated face of the cutter 
rapidly cutting the superfluous metal, the part intended for the screw 
passing into the hole in the cutter. Some care is required in rounding 
the point of the wire, for if not done equally all around, the screw will 
not be true to the head. 

To Remove Broken Screws. It sometimes happens that a screw 
gets broken off in a watch plate in such a manner that it is impossible to 
remove it with tools without marring the plate. In such an event pro- 
ceed as follows: Put enough rain water into a glass tumbler to thor- 
oughly cover the plate and add sulphuric acid until the water tastes a 
sharp sour. Place the plate in the solution and allow it to remain a few 
hours, when the screw will partially dissolve and drop out. Remove from 
the solution, wash thoroughly in clean water, then in alcohol and dry in 
saw dust. The solution will not injure the brass plate or gilding in the 
slightest, but care must be taken to remove all other screws or cement 
jewels, previous to immersion. 

Any one having an Ainerican lathe can, with small expense of time 
and labor, make a small attachment which will easily and quickly 
remove a broken screw from the plate or pillar of any watch. 

Take two common steel watch keys having hardened and tempered 
pipes — size, four or five — having care that the squares in each are of 
the same size and of good depth. Cut off the pipes about half an inch 
from the end; file up one of these for about one-half its length, on three 
equal sides, to fit one of the large split chncksof the lathe. Drill a hole 
in one of the brass centers of the lathe of sufiicient size and depth, into 
which insert the other key-pipe, and fasten with a little solder. Soften a 



287 Screw Driver. 

piece of Stubs' wire, to work easily in the lathe, and turn down for an 
eighth of an inch from the end to a size a little smaller than the broken 
screw in the plate; finish with a conical shoulder, for greater strength, 
and cross-file the end with a fine slot or knife-edge file, that the tool may 
not slip on the end of the broken screw; cut off the wire a half inch from 
the end and file down to a square that will fit closely in one of the key- 
pipes. Make a second point like the first one and fit it to the other key- 
pipe; harden in oil, polish, and temper to a dark straw color. Fit the 
brass center into the tail stock. To use, put the tools in place in the 
lathe, place the broken end of the screw against the end of the point in 
the lathe head; slide up th.. oack center and fasten the point firmly 
against the other end of the screw, that it may not slip or turn; revolve 
tne plate slowly, and the broken screw, being held fast bet-ween the two 
points will be quickly removed. To remove a broken pillar screw, place 
the broken screw against the point in the lathe-head, holding the plate 
firmlv with the right hand, the pillar on a line with the lathe center; 
turn the lathe-head slowly backward with the left hand, and the screw 
will be removed. Should the tool slip on the broken screw, and fail to 
draw it out, drill a hole in the pillar in the lower or dial side, down to 
the screw point (if the size of the pillar from the plate will admit of so 
doing), and with the second point in the back center, remove the screw 
in the same manner as the plate screw in the first process. Five or six 
sizes of these points will be found sufficient for the majority of these 
breakages that may occur. See Scre-tV Extractor. 

To Blue Screws. See BUieiiig Pan. 

Left-Handed Screws. A screw plate for left-handed screws can 
easily be made by screwing a good piece of steel of the desired size into 
a right-handed screw plate, removing, filing down on two sides, to leave 
only a knife edge, and hardening. Drill hole in steel plate and cut with 
the screw described by turning with reverse or left-handed motion. 
Left-handed screws can be made very successfully with th^s plate. 

SCREW DRIVER. A well made and light screw driver is an 
important tool to the watchmaker. The point should be well polished 
and of a width nearly equal to the diameter of the screw head. One of 




Fig. 24fi. 

the best forms on the market is the Waltham, shown in Fig. 246. It has 
four different sizes of blades which are readily adjusted tp position. 



Screw Extractor. 



288 



Screw drivers, are sometimes made in sets, the various width of blades 
being readily detected on the bench, as the color of the handle of each 
width is different. 

SCREW EXTRACTOR. The Bullock Screw Extractor, shown 
in Fig. 247, is a simple yet very valuable accessory to the watchmaker, 
who finds he has a plate in which a screw has been broken off. To use 
this tool, first fasten it in your vice, then bring one end of broken or 




Fig. 247. 

rusted-in screw against screw center and the broken screw bead against 
screw driver; turn the washers so as to hold the broken screw firmly in 
place; turn the plate gently, and the broken screw will follow the screw 
driver point out of the plate. It may be necessary in some instances to 
turn the screw driver point against the broken head with a good deal of 
force in order to start the screw. A little benzine or kerosene applied to 
the screw will help to loosen it. 



SCREW HEAD SINK CUTTER. This tool is not kept by 
material dealers, although a tool which somewhat resembles it, known 
as the countersinker, is. The countersinker does not have the central 
pivot for centering up by. We sometimes have American watches 
brought to us with the end-stone (cap jewel), broken, and a new one 
must be put in. The jewel, being set in brass, is held by two screws on 
opposite sides, the screw heads being let in, or sunk even with the sur- 
face, half of the screw head projecting over on the end-stone. The end- 
stones furnished by the watch companies are not sunk for these screw 
heads, but are round and of the proper diameter. These cutters will cut 



289 Screw Head Cutter. 

away from the jewel the space to be occupied by the screw head in a very 
few moments, and as perfectly as you like. All the American com- 
panics do not use the same diameter of screw head in the cock and 
potence, consequently you will be compelled to make a separate tool for 
the Waltham, Elgin, Hampden, Illinois, and other makes of watches, 
Avhere the sizes are different. With a set of six of these cutters you can 
lit any American watch. They are easily made, and will repay you for 
the trouble. 

Cut off a piece of wire of the required diameter, about one inch long, 
and place it in a chuck that fits it snugly, and turn one end to a center 
about forty degrees. Now reverse the wire in the chuck, and be sure it 



Fig. 248. 

is true; select a drill that will pass through the screw hole in the cock 
or potence freely, and proceed to drill a hole in the center of the end of 
the wire, about one-sixteenth of an inch deep. Remove from the lathe, 
and with a sharp file and graver, proceed to cut a series of teeth as equal 
and even as possible. Use a good strong glass while working, and be 
sure you have every tooth sharp and perfect, as upon this depends the 
quick and nice work you expect from the tool. When this is well done, 
proceed to temper fairly hard, and polish up the outside to inake it look 
workmanlike. Now select a piece of steel pivot wire, of a size that will 
almost fit in the hole drilled in the end of the tool, and polish down- to 
the proper size to drive in the hole tightly. Allow this wire to project 
about one-sixteenth of an inch, taper the point and polish. The tool 
being completed, you are ready for work. 

Select an end-stone of a diameter to fit tightly in the cock or potence, 
as may be required; place the hole jewel in place, and then the end-stone 
pressed down tightly against the hole jewel. Place your cutter in a split 
chuck that fits true ; select a small or medium sized drill rest and place 
in the tail-stock spindle Hold the cock or potence, with the jewels in 
place, against the drill rest, level, and proceeding to run the lathe at a 
fair speed, slowly feed the cock or potence to the cutter, the projecting 
pivot in the end of the cutter passing through the screw hole, and acting 
as a guide to keep the cutter in the center of the hole. Caution must be 
exercised, or you will cut the recess for the screw heads too deep, as 
these little cutters are very deceiving, and cut much faster than you 
would suppose. In fitting an end-stone, select one that is more than 
flush when the jewel hole and end-stone are in the proper position, and 
after sinking the screw head as described, turn off on the lathe almost 
flush or level. Make a small dot on one side of the end stone, as a mark 
or guide in replacing it. Remove the end-stone and proceed to polish 
the top of the setting on a plate glass polisher. 



Screw Plate. 290 

SCREW PLATE. A plate of hard steel in which are threaded 
holes of various sizes, for making screw threads. 

SCREW TAP. A tool for producing screw threads in holes. 

SECONDS HAND REMOVER AND HOLDER. The minute- 
ness of the second hand makes it very difficult to manipulate. The 
little tool shown in Fig. 249 will be found very useful in handling these 
hands. To use it, raise the spring with the thumb, and push the 




Fig. 2411. 

tool along the dial astride the arbor; then let go the spring and raise the 
tool. The spring will hold the second hand firmly until replaced. For 
broaching, hold the tool, spring side down, firmly on bench or vice. 

SECONDS HAND SETTING. This improvement in watches is 
very useful, as it prevents a number of accidents or errors in the regula- 
tion. The attempt to open the glass-bezel of the watch to turn the 
second hand with a pocket knife or other instrument to the right position, 
to make it correspond with the minute hand, should be avoided, as the 
second hand may be shifted or loosened on the pivot, or the ends of the 
hand may be bent so as to catch the other hands, which causes fre- 
quently the stopping of the watch; or instead of the front, the back of the 
watch is opened and with a penknife or pin, the balance is stopped, and 
it or hairspring may be easily bent, or even a pivot, jewel or end stone 
broken. It is at any rate not good to touch a fine balance with any 
instrument whatever, to scratch the same, or even to stop the same, for 
the purpose of having the second hand in the proper position, because the 
most careful operator may accidently drop something into the watch, 
causing either stoppage or troubles of irregularities in the running or 
time keeping. 

In the corresponding figures the invention is illustrated as applied to 
to pendant-set watches of well known construction. The second hand 
is attached to a small wheel i, placed upon a thin steel cannon, that fits 
firmly to the seconds-wheel pivot, as shown in Fig. 250. The stem- 
winding wheels are placed under the yoke, and the crown-wheel, inter- 
mediate winding-wheel, and the setting-wheel, as usual. The wheels 6, 
^, 4 and J are fiat, pivoted to the watch-plate, and are used to connect the 
small wheel 2 with the said stem-winding wheels. This wheel a is 
applied to a rocking-lever and held out of gear with the seconds-set 
wheel /, by the short arm of the lever resting against the circular edge of 
the yoke. The said lever is pivoted upon wheel 5, to the watch-plate, 



291 Seconds Hand Setting. 

and has a weighted arm JV, which forms a weight to the lever, so that 
the same can change its position, by gravity, when the watch is held 
with its stem downward. This is done when the seconds are required to 
be set. The weighted part then holds the rocking-lever against the edge 
of the yoke, which is provided wiih a notch or stop s. In the downward 
position, the stem is pulled outwardly, and the yoke is moved bv the 
usual spring and mechanism, to the position shown in Fig. 251, to an 
intermediate position between the setting and winding positions, or plainly 
said, the winding- wheel /just passes freely the barrel-arbor wheel B and 
the setting-wheel is not yet engaged to the dial-wheel Z>. The move- 
ment of the yoke being stopped by its notch or stop 5 coming in contact 
with the rocking-lever, which, by the gravity of its weighted part bear- 
ing against the edge of the yoke, dro^s into its notch 5, therebv stopping 
the yoke on its way toward the setting position. When the lever is 
caught by the notch s the same is turned on its pivot, so that its wheel 2 




Fig. 250. 



Fig. 251. 



is brought in gear with the seconds setting-wheel y, and by turning the 
stem now, the second hand can be turned forward or backward to any 
second of the dial. By doing this the watch can be held in any desired 
position, either horizontal or with its stem up, as it must be understood 
that the lever is now held firmly into the notch of the yoke by the press- 
ure or the yoke spring, which the weight of the lever cannot overcome, 
and therefore a sure connection is established between the second setting- 
wheel and the stem-arbor of the watch. When the seconds hand has 
been adjusted, an immediate disconnection of the wheel 2 from the 
seconds wheel 1 is established by pressing the stem arbor inwardly, 
whereby the yoke is shifted or swung to the winding position, and the 
notch 5 awav from the rocking lever, which is turned upon the edge of 
the yoke to its normal position as shown in Fig. 250. If the minute hand 
has to be set solely, the stem is pulled outwardly as usual, whereby the 
watch is held in any positian except that with its stem downward, (which 



Seconds Hand Setting. 



292 



is only done in case the seconds hand has to be set, to produce the drop- 
ping of the rocking-lever into the notch 5), and stops the yoke in its 
motion before reaching the setting position. In holding the watch in the 
usual position, the weighted rocking-lever always passes over the notch 
and is held on the circular edge of the notch in this position, but the yoke 
can freely swing to its setting position, that is, its setting-wheel is brought 
fully in engagement with the dial-wheel for setting the minute hand. The 
second hand can either be operated before or after the setting of the 
minute hand, at will. 

The Figs. 250 and 251 represent an Elgin 16 size open face pendant- 
set watch. Fig. 252 represents a Waltham 18 size pendent-set watch. 
The weight W is shown herein separated from the working-lever, that 
controls the wheel 2. The stop 5 on the yoke is formed aside from the 
notch arranged into the circular edge of the yoke and the rocking-lever 
is always pressed against the same by a suitable spring. The wheel 2 is 




Fig. 252. Fig. 253. . Fig. 254. 

held out of gear with the seconds-setting wheel / as long as the said 
notch is not engaged by the rocking-lever, this being only the case, by 
first holding the watch with its stem E down, so that the weighted part 
W can engage the stop 5, which is brought toward and against the same, 
when the stem is pulled outwardly. In this position the notch of the 
yoke is exactly moved in line with the end of the rocking lever and en- 
gaged thereby, which is turned with its wheel 2 out of connection with 
the seconds-set wheel /, as shown in Fig. 252. In pressing the stem 
inwardly, the yoke is again brought back to the winding position as 
usual and the notch away from said rocking-lever, which is thereby 
turned with its wheel 2 out of connection with the wheel j. When the 
minutes are to be set, hold the watch in any position except with the 
stem downward, and pull the stem outwardly. The motion of the yoke 
is then produced bv its spring to its fullest' turn, that is, the setting- 
wheel vS is brought in connection with the dial-wheel D, as usual. It 
will thus be seen, that as long as the rocking-wheel is held against the 
circular edge of the yoke, the wheel 2 is held out of gear of wheel y, and 
can only connect with the same when the yoke is shipped around suffi- 
ciently and stopped by the weight, and this can be done only by pulling 



293 Sector. 

the stem out so that the notch can come in line with tlie end of the 
rocking-lever, which moves into the same and receives tliereby the 
motion to set its wheel 2 into gear with wheel /. 

Fig. 254 is a seconds-setting attachment which can be placed on key 
or stem winding watches of a peculiar construction. / is the seconds- 
hand wheel and the wheel 2^ which is placed on a small longitudinally 
movable stem, is shiftable in or out of connection with the said wheel I 
by the outward or inward motion of said stem. The invention was pat- 
ented March]20, 18SS, by Fred Terstegen, of Elizabeth, N. J. 

SECTOR. A proportional gauge consisting of two limbs joined 
together at one end ; used principally for sizing wheels and pinions. 

SHELLAC. A resinous substance used extensivety by watchmak- 
ers and jewelers for holding work. Shellac is a corruption of Shell-lac. 
Lac is the original name of the resinous product which is exuded from 
an insect which feeds upon the banyan tree. In its natural state it in- 
crusts small twigs and is known as sttck-lac. It is then broken from the 
wood and boiled in alkaline water and the product, from its shape, is 
called seed-lac. It is then melted and reduced to thin flakes, known in 
commerce as shell-lac or shellac. 

SHERWOOD, N. B. A clever mechanic, mathematician and in- 
ventor. He was born in New York state in 1823. In 1856 he entered 
the emplov of Mr. Howard in the Waltham factory, and there his inven- 
tive genius was brought into full piay in originat- 
ing new tools and machines to do the work 
formerly done by hand. He not only conceived 
new ideas, but being an excellent draftsman, he 
placed them on paper and then entering the 
machine shop he put these machines together. 
Under his charge the jeweling department of the 
factory made a complete revolution over the old 
methods, and new methods and systems of doing 
"""""^ — work were introduced and the product doubled. 

ervoo . Many of the machines and tools used to-day in 

watch factories were invented and first built by him. Among his 
many inventions were the counter-sinker or screw-head tool, for jewel 
screws; the end-shake tools, the opener, and the truing-up tools. In 
1864 he interested capitalists and organized the Newark Watch Com- 
pany. He died in October, 1872. 

SIDEREAL CLOCK. A clock adjusted to measure sidereal time. 
It usually numbers the hours from o to 24. See Time. 




Sidereal Day. 294 

SIDEREAL DAY. The interval of time between two successive 
transits over the same meridian of the vernal equinox, or first point of 
Aries. It is the true period of the earth's rotation. See Time. 

SILVER. A soft, white, precious metal, very malleable and ductile 
and capable of taking a high polish. For Silver Plating, see Electro. 
Platijig 

Separating Silver. The silver-holding alloy or metal is dissolved in 
the least possible quantity of crude nictric acid. The solution is mixed 
with a srtong excess of ammonia and filtered into a high cylinder, pro- 
vided with a stopper. A bright strip of copper, long enough to project 
beyond the liquid, is next introduced, which quickly causes separation of 
pure metallic silver. The reduction is completed in a short time, and 
the reduced silver washed first with some ammoniacal solution and then 
wdth distilled water. The more ammoniacal and concentrated the solu- 
lution, the more rapid the reduction. The strip of copper should not be 
too thin, as it is considerably attacked, and any little particles which 
might separate from a thin sheet would contaminate the silver. The 
operation is so simple that it seems preferable to all others for such 
operations as the preparation of nitrate of silver from old coins, etc. Any 
accompanying gold remains behind during the treatment of the metal 
or alloy with nitric acid. Chloride of silver, produced by the impurities 
in the nitric acid, is taken up by the ammoniacal solution, like the cop- 
per,* and is also reduced to the metallic state; and whatever other metal 
is not left behind, oxidized by the nitric acid, is separated as hydrate, 
(lead, bismuth), on treating with ammonia. Any arseniate which may 
have passed into the ammoniacal solution, is not decomposed by the 
copper. 

To Distingmish Genuine Silver. File or scrape the surface of the 
articles to be tested, rub the exposed portion on a touchstone and apply 
a test water consisting of 32 parts of distilled water and 16 parts of 
chromic acid. Rinse the stone in water and if the article is genuine 
silver a red spot will be left upon the stone, but if it is an imitation the 
mark will be unalYected. The finer the quality of the silver the more 
intense will be the red spot. 

Silver Assay with Testing Tube. Place in the tube enough of the 
pulverized mineral to fill one inch of space, and on this pour nitric acid 
to occupy two inches more, and hold the mixture over the flame until 
the acid boils. The acid will dissolve whatever silver may be present, 
and must be passed through filtering paper to remove extraneous matter, 
and returned to the tube. Next add a few drops of water saturated with 
salt; any silver or lead that may be present will be precipitated in a 



2i)5 Silver. 

cloudy form to the bottom. Drain off the acid, place the precipitate in 
the sunlight, and in a few minutes, if it contain silver, it will turn to a 
purple color, and may be again liquified by the addition of spirits of 
ammonia. The testing tube is formed of thin glass, about five inches 
long, and less than one inch diameter; bottom and sides of equal thick- 
ness. Where the tube is lacking, a cup may be used instead. 

Silver Assay by Smelting. If no lead is present, mix 600 grs. of the 
pulverized ore with 300 grs, carbonate of soda, 600 grs. of litharge, and 
12 grains charcoal in a crucible; add a slight coal of borax over all, put 
on the furnace, melt, take off, give it a few taps to settle the metal, let it 
cool, and remove the button. 

To Clean Silver Plate. The tarnish can be removed by dipping the 
article from one to fifteen minutes in a pickle of the following composi- 
tion: Rain water, 2 gallons, and cyanide of potash J^ pound; dissolve 
together, and fill into a stone jug or jar, and close tightly. The article 
after having been immersed, must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in 
several waters, then dried with fine, clean sawdust. Tarnished jewelry 
can be speedily restored by this process ; but be careful to thoroughly 
remove the alkali, otherwise it will corrode the goods. 

Cleaning Silverware. Hyposulphate of soda is the simplest and 
most effective cleansing material for- silverware; it operates quickly and 
is cheap. A rag or brush moistened with the saturated solution of the 
salt cleanses, strongly oxidized silver surfaces within a few seconds, with- 
out the use of cleaning powder. 

Cleaning Silver Tarnished in Soldering. Expose to a uniform heat, 
allow it to cool, and then boil in strong alum water; or, immerse for a 
considerable length of time in a liquid made of one-half ounce of cyanide 
of potash to one pint of rain water, and then brush off with prepared 
chalk. 

Cleaning Silver Filigree. Anneal your work over a Bunsen flame 
or with a blowpipe, then let grow cold (and this is the secret of success), 
and then put in a pickle of sulphuric acid and water, not more than five 
drops to one ounce of water, and let your work remain in it for one hour. 
If not to satisfaction, repeat the process. 

To Frost Silver. To produce a frosted surface upon polished silver 
use cyanide of potassium with a brush; the silver should not be handled 
during the process, but held between pieces of boxwood or lancewood. 
The proportion should be, i ounce of cyanide of potassium in i pint 
of water. 



Single Beat Escapement. 296 

To Frost Silver. Silvex- goods may be frosted and whitened by pre- 
paring a pickle of sulphuric acid i dram, water 4 ounces; heat it and 
immerse the silver articles until frosted as desired; then wash off clean, 
and dry with a soft linen cloth, or in fine clean sawdust. For whiten- 
ing only, a small quantity of acid may be employed. 

To Frost Silver. The article has to be carefully annealed either in a 
charcoal fire, or with a blowpipe before a gas flame, which will oxidize 
the alloy on the surface, and also destroy all dirt and greasy substances 
adhering to it, and then boiled in a copper pan containing a solution ot~ 
of dilute sulphuric acid — of i part of acid to about 30 parts of water. 
The article is then placed in a vessel of clean water, and scratch- 
brushed, or scoured with fine sand; after which the annealing or boiling- 
out is repeated which will in most cases be sufficient to produce the 
desired result. If a very delicate dead surface such as watch dials, etc., 
is required, the article is, before the second annealing, covered with a 
pasty solution of potash and water, and immediately after the annealing, 
plunged in clean water, and then boiled out in either sulphuric acid solu- 
tion, or a solution of i part cream tartar and 2 parts common salt to 
about 30 parts of water. If the article is of a low quality of silver, it is 
well to add some silver solution, such as is used for silvering, to the sec- 
ond boiling out solution. If the article is very inferior silver, the finish- 
ing will have to be given by immersing it in contact with a strip of zinc 
in a silver solution. 

SINGLE-BEAT ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in which the 
escape wheel moves only at every alternate vibration of the balance, or 
pendulum. The chronometer and duplex are the best known examples 
of single-beat escapements. 

SKIVE. A circular saw used for slitting stones. It consists of a 
disc of iron fixed on a spindle between two collars or nuts. The free part 
is slightly dished to secure rigidity. Its edge is charged with diamond 
powder by pressing a hard stone against it, and gently pouring a little 
powder between the edge of the skive and the stone. 

SLIDE REST. Tlie slide rest is a tool holder to be used on a lathe; 

it is so universally used by all watchmakers 
that a full description is superfluous. Fig. 
256 is a Moseley, and is a fair example of 
a modern slide rest for watchmakers' use. 
The tool holder varies with the different 
makers, but the rests proper are all made 
on the same general principle; that of two 
fig^ 256'. sliding beds working at right angles to one 

another and carrying a tool holder, capable of being raised, or lowered, 

or set at any desired angle. 




297 Snail. 

SNAIL. A cam resembling a snail in form, used in the striking 
attachment to clocks. 

SNAILING. The ornamentation of the surface of metals by means 
of circles or bars, sometimes erroneously called damaskeening 

SNAP. A small catch, or fastening, as in a bracelet. The fastening 
of one piece of metal to another by springing of the edges, as in the 
bezel of a watch case. 

SNARL. To emboss or raise figures upon metal work by driving 
the metal up from the back with a die or snarling iron, as in metal 
vases. 

SNARLING IRON. An ^ shaped steel tool which is used in 
snarling, or embossing metal vases, etc. One end of the snarling iron 
is placed in the vise, and the shank being struck with a hammer, the 
repercussion of the other end drives out the metal. The snarling iron 
is only used on vases, pitchers, and like hollow ware. 

SOLDERING. The act of joining two metallic surfaces by means 
of a more fusible metal, or metallic cement. Solders are commonly 
divided into two groups, known as hard solders and soft solders ; the for- 
mer fuse only at a red heat, while the latter fuse at low degrees of heat. 
In hard soldering, it is frequently necessary to bind the parts to be sol- 
dered together with what is known as binding wire, which is made of 
soft iron, or the repair clamps shown in Fig. 238, or soldering forceps 
shown in Fig. 257. The blow pipe is used most extensively for solder- 
ing, although small soldering irons are used on the larger kinds of work. 
It is of the utmost importance that the meeting edges of all articles to be 
soldered be scraped, or chemicalh' cleaned. While soldering, articles are 
usually placed upon a piece of charcoal, though asbestos, or pumice 
stone is better for the purpose. Charcoal emits gases from the coal while 
under the blowpipe, which enter into the alloy of gold or silver and ren- 
der it brittle. To prove this, reduce a small piece of lok gold to a liquid 
form on a piece of charcoal, and treat a piece similarly on a piece of 
asbestos or pumice stone, and after allowing each to cool, subject both to 
a heavy pressure, and note the difference in their malleability and 
ductility. 

Hard Solders. Under this name very different alloys are used, de- 
pending upon the metals to be united. The following table shows the 
composition of various hard solders, which have stood a practical test 
for various purposes : 



Soldering. 



298 



Refractory 
Readily Fusible, 
Half White, - 
Wliite, - 
Very Ductile, - 



Parts Brass 

4.00 

5.00 

12 00 

40.00 

78.25 



Parts Zinc. 

1.00 
4 00 
5.00 
2 00 
17.25 



Parts Tin, 



1.00 
8.00 



Gold Solders. Gold solders should approach the articles to be sol- 
dered in both color and fusibility as nearly as possible. The following 
gold solders are in general use : 



Hard solder for 750 fine 
Soft solder for 750 " 
Solder for 583 *' 

Solder for less than 583 " 
Readily Fusible Solder 
Solder for yellow Gold 



Parts Gold, 



9.0 

12.0 

3.0 

2.0 

11.94 

10.0 



Parts 
Silver. 



2.0 
7.0 
20 
2.0 
54.74 
5.0 



Parts 
Copper. 



1.0 
3.0 
1.0 

28.17 



Parts Zinc. 



5.01 
1.0 



Silver Solders. The following hard silver solders have been thor- 
oughly tested : 



First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 



Parts Fine 
Silver. 



4 

2 

19 

57 



Parts 
Copper. 



1 

28.6 



Parts Brass 



3 

1 

10 



Parts Zinc. 



5 
14.3 



Soft Solder. The soft solder most frequently used consists of 2 parts 
of tin and i of lead. The following table gives the composition of various 
soft solders with their respective melting points : 



Number. 


Parts Tin 


Parts 
Lead. 


Melts at 
Degrees F. 


Number. 


Parts Tin 


Parts 
Lead. 


Melts at 
De^. F. 


1- - - 




25 


558 


7 - - 


m 




334 


2- - 




10 


541 


8 - - 


2 




340 


3- - 




5 


511 


9 - - 


3 




356 


4- . - 




3 


482 


10 - - 


4 




365 


5- - - 




2 


441 


11 - - 


5 




378 


6- - - 




1 


37 


12 - - 


6 




380 



291) Soldering. 

Aluminium Solder. The following alloys are recommended for the 
purpose: i. Melt twenty parts of aluminium in a suitable crucible, and 
when in fusion add 80 parts zinc. When the mixture is melted, cover 
the surface with tallow, and maintain in quiet fusion for some time, 
stirring occasionally with an iron rod; then pour into moulds. 2. Take 
15 parts of aluminum and 85 parts zinc, or 12 parts of the former and 88 
parts of the latter, or 8 parts of the former and 92 parts of the latter; pre- 
pare all of them as specified for No. i. The flux recommended consists of 
three parts balsam copaiba, one of Venetian turpentine, and a few drops 
of lemon juice. The soldering iron is dipped into this inixture. 

Soldering Fluxes. For hard solder use borax rubbed to a paste with 
water on a slate. For soft soldering dissolve a small piece of zinc in pure 
hydrochloric acid until effervescence ceases. Take out the undissolved 
zinc after 24 hours, filter the solultion, add y^ its volume of spirits of sal- 
ammoniac and dilute with rain water. This fluid is non-corrosive. 

Soft Solder for Smooth Surfaces. Where two smooth surfaces are to 
be soldered one upon the other, you may make an excellent job by mois- 
tening them with the fluid, and then, having placed a sheet of tin foil 
between them, hold them pressed firmly together over your lamp until 
the foil melts. If the surface is fitted nicely, a joint may be made in this 
■way so close as to be almost imperceptible. The bright looking lead, 
which comes as a lining for tea boxes, is better than tin foil, 

To Dissolve Soft Solder. Nitric acid may be used safely for gold 
not lower than 12k, and is verj' effective. The following is suitable for 
all grades of gold and silver: Green copperas, 2 oz. ; saltpeter, i oz., 
reduced to a powder and boiled in 10 oz. of water. It will become crys- 
talized on cooling. Dissolve these crystals by the addition of 8 parts of 
spirits of salts to each part of crystals, using an earthenware vessel. Add 
4 parts of boiling water, keep the mixture hot, and immerse the article 
to be operated upon, and the solder will be entirely removed without injur- 
ing the work. 

Soldering Stone Set Rings. There are various ways for doing this, 
but the following will be found as good as any: Take tissue paper and 
tear it into strips about three inches wide, twist thein into ropes, and then 
make them very wet and wrap the stone with them, passing around the 
stone and through the ring until the center of the ring is a little inore 
than half full of paper, always winding very close, and then fasten upon 
charcoal, allowing the stone to project over the edge of the charcoal, and 
solder very quickly. The paper will prevent oxidation upon the part of 
the ring it covers, as well as protecting the stone. 



Soldering Forceps, 



300 



SOLDERING FORCEPS. By the use of this ingenious device, 
any article to be repaired can be adjusted in any desired position in a 
much shorter time, and with inore accuracy, than by the ordinary pro- 
cess of binding with wire to a piece of charcoal. The Crane Patent Sol- 
dering Forceps are so constructed that any two pieces can be as readily 
brought together as can be done with the fingers, no matter at what angle 
or position you may desire them. Each part works independent of the 




Fig. 257. 

Other, and the whole is held securely in place by means of a nut, as 
shown in Fig. 257, at /^, and both hands being free, charcoal can be held 
behind the article, thereby concentrating the heat, the same as when 
held directly upon it. In soft soldering it can be used to great advan- 
tage. 

The forceps £ E, revolve in parts cl d^ which are fastened to arms C C, 
by means of a hinge joint. The arms C C run through the collars dd^ so 
that they can be lengthened or shortened, and the forceps raised or 
lowered as desired. The collars l>lf turn independently of each other on 
base A, and being split, the whole is held firmly in position bv nut I^. 
See also Txveezers. 



SOLDERING PADS. Figs. 25S to 260 illustrate Melotte's non-con- 
ducting soldering pads, which are reversible, and adapted to contain a 
small crucible and ingot mould on one side, a removable rim, shown in 
Fig. 258; a detachable handle, and various spring clamps as shown. Fig- 



301 



Soldering Pads. 



260 illustrates Melotte's new gas olow-pipe, which is used with these 
pads. This blow-pipe is simple and convenient, and, as will be seen by 
consulting the illustration, it consists of a 
blow-pipe of the ordinary form having a 
gas pipe inserted in the lower half, and 
a threaded hood or sleeve at the lower end, 
which changes the shape of the flame by 
screwing in or out, so as to vary the 




Fig. 258. 

influence of the current of air upon the 
flame. A ring adapted to slip over the 
finger Avhile working, is soldered to the 
middle joint of the pipe, and the quantity 
of gas is controlled by the stop-cock and 




Fig. 2.5.9. 



fjpring lever shown in the cut, tne gas being 
supplied to the pipe by a rubber tube connecting 
it to the nearest gas jet in the usual wav. Thus 
having the shape of the flarne under control, and 



y Fig. 260. 



Soldering Pads. 302 

the quantity variable at will, tlie workman is in position to accomplish 
the desired end speedily and effectually. 

To use to the best advantage, set the jamb-nut so that with the valve 
lever in its normal position, the flame at the end of the pipe will just keep 
alight. The blow-pipe can then be laid down temporarily, and again 
used without the trouble of turning off the gas or relighting. 

When used as a mouth blow-pipe, the inost convenient way to hold it 
is with the third finger through the ring. For bellows work it is better 
to pass the ring over the index finger. The ring also serves, with the 
valve-lever, as a rest to hold the flame-nozzle away from the table when 
the blow-pipe is laid down temporarily. 

To produce an oxy-hydrogen flame, connect the air-pipe with a cylin- 
der of nitrous oxide, opening the cylinder- valve carefully, so as to permit 
the escape of only sufficient nitrous oxide to produce, with the illuminat- 
ing gas, a very small flame. Regulate the illuminating gas flow with 




Fiq. 2in. 

the thumb-screw, or with the finger on the lever of the blow-pipe valve. 

For soldering, use the grooved face of the pad, with or without the 
removable rim (shown in Fig. 258), according to the work. The wire 
staples answer the double purpose of holding the removable rim in place 
and raising the pad from the table, with air-space underneath. 

The spring-clamps are useful in holding the parts to be soldered, the 
loops in the metal band around the pad permitting them to be placed in 
any desired position. 

For melting, use the reverse side of the pad, with the depression for 
melting-cup. Fig. 261 shows the melting-cup and ingot-mould in place. 
The shield is a flat piece of metal, with a lip at one end. The small 
melting-cups should always be used, as flux adheres to the pad, and pulls 
off particles of the fiber. The cup is held in place by two pins, inserted 
in the pad on either side, with the head bent over the edge of the cup. 
Place the shield upon the pad, with the lip in the depression underneath 
the edge of the cup; and fasten securely by placing pins through the 
notches in the edges. Then place the ingot-mold upon the shield, with 
the mouth of the proper matrix opposite the lip in the cup. To insure 
a smooth ingot, the ingot-mold should be slightly warmed, and oiled or 



303 



Specific Gravities. 



waxed. After the metal is melted, tilt the pad gradually, carrying the 
metal toward the mold, and pour quickly. The handle of the pad can be 
attached at any point. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. The following table shows the specific 
gravities of numerous metals employed in the arts, together with their 
melting points, malleability, ductility, and tenacity. 



Metals. 


Specific Gravity. 


Melting 
Fahrenheit 


Points. 
Centig'de 


Order of 
Mallea- 
bility. 


Order of 
Ductility. 


Tena- 
city.* 


Platinum 


21.40 to 21.50 


Infusible except by the 
Oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. 


6 


3 


274 


Gold 


19.25 to 19.50 


2016° 


1102° 


1 


1 


150i 


Mercury 


13.56 to 13.59 












Lead 


11.40 to 11.45 


612° 


322° 


7 


9 


27i 


Silver. 


10.47 to 10.50 


1873° 


1023° 


2 


2 


187 


Bismuth 


9.82 to 9.90 


497° 


258° 








Copper 


8.89 to 8.96 


1994° 


1090° 


3 


5 


302 


Nickel 


8 40 to 8 60 


2700° 


1482° 


10 


10 




Iron. 


7.77 to 7.80 


2786° 


1530° 


9 


4 


549 


Tin 


7.25 to 7.30 


442° 


238° 


5 


8 


34i 


Zinc 


6.80 to 7.20 


773° 


412° 


8. 


7 


109i 


Antimony... 


6.75 to 6.80 


A little below 
red heat. 










Arsenic 

Aluminium. 


5.70 to 5.90 
2.56 to 2.60 


Volatiliz-s 
below fusing. 

1300° 


705° 


4 


6 


300 



SPECTACLE TOOL. Nearly every watchmaker knows what a 
troublesome thing it is to repair spectacle frames. When soldered, the 
solder will run through and fill the groove for the glass, and it is no easy 
matter to cut the solder out of the groove with a graver. The graver 
will slip, scratch and mar the frames in spite of the greatest care. This 
spectacle tool will cut out the groove in gold, silver, steel or any other 
spectacle frames in a tnoment's time, smoothly and perfectly. This tool 
is not for sale by material dealers, but can be made by any ingenious 
watchmaker. Take a piece of Stubs' polished steel wire, say number 
40 by steel wire gauge, and one and a fourth inches long. Insert the 
wire in a chuck in your lathe, allowing the end to project about one- 
fourth inch; proceed to turn both ends to a center, as shown in 
Fig. 262. Select two female centers of the proper size; place one in 
the taper chuck of your lathe and the other in the tail stock spindle; 
fasten a dog on the piece of wire, and proceed to turn the wire even and 
straiglit throughout its entire length. Remove from the lathe, select a 

* Number of lbs. sustained by 0.787 of aline in diameter in wires of the various 
metals. 



Split Seconds. 



304 



split chuck, that will fit snugly, place the wire in the chuck, allowing 
about three-eighths of an inch to project; remove the T rest of your 
lathe, and insert in its stead a filing fixture. By the aid of the index on 
the lathe pulley and the filing fixtures, proceed to square the end of the 
wire, (about one-fourth inch), of a size to fit in an American ratchet 
wheel. Now select two ratchets of the same thickness and size and 
place them on the square cut on the wire. Proceed to round up the bal- 
ance of the square not occupied by the ratchets, and with the screw plate 
cut a nice full thread on the end up to the square. Now cut oflf a small 
piece of steel wire, the same in diameter as the body of the tool, true it in 
your lathe chuck and drill a hole in the center about one-eighth inch 
deep. With a screw tap, of the proper size to fit the screw on the end of 




Fig. 262. 

the shaft, which is now a small spindle, tap a good thread in the hole. 
This short piece is intended for a nut. With a graver cut it off to the 
desired length, replace the two ratchets and screw on the nut; replace 
the spindle in your lathe and turn up the nut round and true. While in 
the lathe, square half the length of the nut on two sides only. This is 
intended for a grab or hold for your pliers in removing the nut from the 
spindle. You can vary the width of the cut by using two or three 
ratchets as is desired. In order to make the groove rounding, the shape 
of the spectacle glass, hold an oil stone to the edge of the ratchets while 
revolving, which will round them very slightly. American ratchet 
wheels make good cutters and any width of groove can be cut. When 
the teeth get dull they can easily be sharpened or new wheels can be sub- 
stituted. With this tool you can cut the solder out of spectacle frames 
in a few minutes. It will also prove useful in enlarging spectacle 
frames, in fitting new lenses. 

SPLIT SECONDS. A variety of double chronograph in which 
there are two center-seconds hands. 

SPRUNG OVER. A watch in which the hairspring is attached to 
the staff above the balance. 

STAFF. An axis or arbor. 



STAKE. An anvil. To fasten bv means of a stake. 



305 



Staking Tool. 



STAKING TOOL. A tool needed by every watchmaker, consist- 
ing of a shifting table or stake, around which holes of various sizes are 
arranged in a circle, so that any desired hole may be brought under a 
suitable punch moving in a vertical holder. Usually twenty-four tem- 
pered steel punches and four stumps are provided, which will be found 
sufficient to coverall the operations in the ordinary run of watch repairs, 




Fig. 2n3. 

and the ingenious workman can from time to time add to these by mak- 
ing punches in his spare moments, if he finds from experience that he is 
in need of punches of a different shape. Fig. 263 illustrates the Johan- 
son combination staking tool on the front of which a hairspring stud in- 
dicator is arranged. 

STAKING TOOL AND ANVIL. Smith's patent staking tool, 
anvil and screw holder, shown in Fig. 264, will be found a very handy 

tool for removing and putting on 

rollers, for putting hairspring 

collet on balance staff, or for 

riveting in bushings. The plain 

staking block, or anvil, is usually 

*^' ^^^' made of a solid piece of polished 

steel, in the form of a cube, or circular as in Fig. 265. The example 

shown has a reversible center hub which makes it valuable for putting 

on hands, etc. 




star Wheel. 



306 




STAR WHEEL. The wheel of the stop work which is pivoted to 
the barrel and also known as the Maltese cross. 

STEADY PINS. Pins used to secure two pieces of metal in rela- 
tive positions, as a bridge and plate. 

STEEL. Iron, when combined with a small portion of carbon. The 
vaxieties of steel are very great. Puddled steel is made from pig iron bv 
a modification of the puddling process. Cast steel is made from wrought 

iron or blister steel 
by mixing it with 
powdered charcoal, 
after which it is melt- 
ed in a crucible, cast 
into ingots and rolled 
or hammered into 
plates or bars. Blister 
steel is made from 
wrought iron by inter- 
laying it with char- 
coal and keeping it at 
a high temperature 
Fig. 265. for a number of days. 

Bessemer steel is made from the liquid cast iron as it comes from the 
smelting furnace by blowing air into it, thus burning out a portion of the 
carbon. 

To Anneal Steel. There are nearly as many methods of annealing as 
there are workmen The commonest methods are as follows: Heat to 
a dull red, bury in warm iron filings or ashes, and allowing the article to 
cool very gradually. Another method is to heat the piece as slowly as 
possible, and when at a low red heat put it "between two pieces of dry 
board and screw them tightly in a vise. The steel burns its way into 
the wood, and on coming together around it they form a practically air- 
tight charcoal bed. Brannt gives the following method, which he says 
w^ill make steel so soft that it can be worked. like copper : Pulverize beef 
bones, mix them with equal parts of loam and calves' hair and stir the 
mixture into a thick paste with water. Apply a coat of this to the steel 
and place it in a crucible, cover this with another, fasten the two 
together with wire and close the joint hermetically with clay. Then put 
the crucible in the fire and heat slowly. When taken from the fire let it 
cool by placing it in ashes. On opening the crucible the steel will be 
found so soft that it can be engraved like copper. 

To Anneal Small Steel Pieces. Place the articles from which you 
desire to draw the temper into a comm.on iron clock key. Fill around 



b07 Steel 

it with brass or iron tilings, and then plug up the open end with a steel 
iron or brass plug, made to tit closely. Take the handle of the key with 
your pliers and hold its pipe into the blaze of a lamp till red hot, then let 
it cool gradually. When sufficiently cold to handle, remove the plug, 
and you will find the article with its temper fully drawn, but in all other 
respects just as it was before. The reason for having the article thus 
plugged up while passing it through the heating and cooling process is, 
that springing always results from the action of changeable currents of 
atmosphere. The temper may be drawn from cylinders, sta^s, pinions, 
or any other delicate pieces by this mode with perfect safety. 

Hardening and Tempering Steel. The process of heating steel to a 
red heat and immediately chilling it is the same among all workmen, but 
the agents employed for chilling are very numerous. The receipts here 
<riven are from various sources, and the reader must adopt the one which 
he finds on trial, is the best adapted to his wants. 

In all cases the object should be heated to a red heat before plung- 
ing. If an object to be hardened is long and slender, it should 
invariably be inserted in the hardening compound end-wise, otherwise it 
will come out warped and distorted. The same rule applies to thin or 
"'lat objects. A preparation is used in hardening, consisting of one tea- 
<;poonful of wheat flour, two of salt and four of water. The steel to be 
hardened, is to be heated sufficiently, dipped into the mixture, to be 
^,oated therewith, then raised to a red glow, and dropped into cold soft 
water. Another method is to raise the object to the required heat and 
then drop it into a mixture of ten parts of mutton suet, two parts of sal- 
ammoniac, five parts resin and thirty-five parts olive oil. Oil, tallow, 
beeswax and resin are also employed for hardening. If an intense brittle 
hardness is desirable, drop the object into mercury or nitric acid. In heat- 
ing very small or thin objects, they should be placed between two thin 
pieces of charcoal and the whole brought to the required heat. In this 
wav vou avoid uneven heating and hence it will be uniformly tempered. 
When it is desirable to harden an article without discoloring its surface, 
it should be placed in a metal tube or bowl of a clay pipe, and surrounded 
with charcoal that has been previously heated to expel all moisture, and 
when raised to the proper heat the whole should be immersed in the 
liardening liquid. 

Mat for Steel. The article to be treated must first be ground flat 
and free from scratches in the usual manner. When this is accom- 
plished take oil stone powder, mix it with oil and then add a little blue- 
stone powder. Grinding is performed best upon a composition or iron 
plate, or a file of the same material; glass is not as well suited for the 
purpose. A large quantity of grinding powder and oil should be used. 
Very hard articles take a good mat grinding with difficulty, and when- 
ever possible it is advisable to anneal them blue. 



steel. 



308 



Do not press too hard in grinding; the small grains ot oilstone should 
assume a rolling motion, whereby they will to a certain extent, wear hol- 
lows with their sharp edges in the surface of the steel, all of which 
together will impart the handsome, mat appearance. If too much pres- 
sure is brought to bear, and the grinding material is too dry, it will cake 
on the steel and produce the disagreeable scratched surface so often seen. 

The quantity of bluestone necessary for grinding can be scraped oft 
from a large piece, after which the scrapings must be thoroughly crushed. 
The oilstone powder must not be too fine and should be of uniform 
grain. The proportions are i part of bluestone to 4 of oilstone powder. 

Tempering. Before tempering, the surface of the object must be 
thoroughly cleaned and freed from grease by the application of oilstone 
dust, emery, or some like scouring agent. The object should not be 
handled with the fingers after cleaning, or it will be difficult to obtain 
the requisite tint. The following table by Stodart will be valuable to 
the student : 



1 


430° F 
450° F 
470° F 
490° F 
500° F 
520° F 
530° F 
550° F 
570° F 
590° F 
610° F 
630° F 


Very Pale Straw Yellow 


220° C 


2 
3 


A Shade Darker Yellow 

Darker Straw Yellow 


235° C 
245° C 


4 
5 


Still Darker Straw Yellow 

Brown Yellow 


255° C 
260° C 


6 

7 


Yellow tinged with Purple 

Light Purple.. 


27(1° C 
275° C 


8 


Dark Purple 


290° C 


9 


Dark Blue 


300° C 


10 


Paler Blue 


310° C 


11 


Still Paler Blue... 


320° C 


12 


Light Bluish Green 


335° C 




cu 





After letting an object down to the required color it should be allowed 
to cool gradually, and no artificial ineans used to hasten the cooling. A 
piece of steel may be let down to the same color several times without 
in any way injuring it or altering ^its properties. Tempering of small 
articles is performed satisfactorily by means of the bluing pan. (See 
^^S- 38). Small articles are also tempered by placing them in a vessel, 
say a large spoon, covering them with oil and heating them to the requis- 
ite degree. This is a favored method of tempering balance staffs and 
similar articles. The temper is usually judged by the color of the 
smoke; Saunier gives the following rule: When smoke is first seen to 
rise, the temper is dark yellow (or No. 2). Smoke more abundant and 
darker (No. 5). Black smoke still thicker (No. 7). Oil takes fire when 
lighted paper is presented to it at No. 9. After this the oil takes fire of 
itself and continues to burn. If the whole of the oil is allowed to burn 
awav No. 12 is reached. 



309 



Steel. 



The Color of Steel at Various Degrees of Temperature. The fol- 
lowing table gives the temperature corresponding to the various colors 
of steel when heated. 



980° F 
1290° F 
1470° F 
165(1° F 
1830° F 
2010° F 
2190° F 
2370° F 
2r)50° F 



Incipient Red 

Dull Red 

Incipient Cherry Red 

Cherry Red _ 

Clear Cherry Red 

Deep Orange 

Clear Orange 

White 

Bright White 



525° 


c 


700° 


c 


800° 


c 


900° 


c 


1100° 


c 


1100° 


c 


1200° 


c 


1300° 


c 


1400° 


c 



Combined Hardening and Tempering. M. Caron, with a view to 
combining the two operations of hardening and tempering, suggested 
that the temperature of the water used for hardening, be heated to a pre- 
determined degree. Thus the requisite temper may be given to gun- 
lock springs by heating the water in which they are hardened to 55° C, 
or 130° F. 

To Work Hard Steel. If steel is rather hard under the hammer, 
when heated to the proper cherry red, it may be covered with salt and 
hammered to about the shape desired.* More softness can then be 
obtained, if required to give a further finish to the shape, by sprinkling 
it with a mixture of salt, blue vitriol, sal-ammoniac, saltpeter and alum ; 
make cherry red again, sprinkle with this mixture, and hammer into 
shape. This process may be repeated until entirely finished. When 
ready, the steel is hardened in a solution of the same mixture. This 
method is recommended by prominent workers. 

To Remove Rust, Kerosene oil (refined petroleum), or benzine 
are the best agents for the removal of rust, where the object is not pitted. 
When pitted, however, it can only be removed by mechanical means 
such as scouring with emery powder and oil. 

To Prevent Rust. Rub the article with a mixture of lime and oil, 
or a mixture of equal parts of carbolic acid and olive oil, or with plum- 
bago. 



Anti-rust Varnish for Steel. The rusting of steel and iron tools and 
instruments is very perfectly prevented by coating them with a varnish 
made by dissolving i part white wax in 15 parts benzine, and applying 
with a brush. The very thin layer of wax forms a perfect covering for 
bright tools and when desired is very easily removed. 



steel. 310 

Browning or Bronzing for Steel. Aqua fortis and sweet spirits, 
niter, each half an ounce, sulphate copper 2 ounces, water 30 ounces, 
tincture muriate of iron i ounce. Mix. 

To Protect Steel from Rust. Immerse in a solution of carbonate 
of potash for a few minutes and it will not rust for years, not even when 
exposed to damp atmosphere. 

To Temper Small Steel Articles. The tempering of small drills, 
for drilling holes in arbors, staffs, etc., which we find are very hard and 
difficult to perforate, may be effected in the following manner: After 
liaving filed the drill to its proper size (being careful not to flatten the 
cutting face), you then warm it moderately, not allowing it to become 
red, and run it into borax. The drill is thus coated over with a crust of 
borax and secluded from the air. Now it may be hardened by heating 
it only cherry red; after this it is inserted into a piece of borax, or what 
is better still, plunged into mercury; taking care not to breathe the 
mercury fumes. Drills prepared in this way, without being brittle, will 
become exceedingly hard and the watchmaker will be enabled to drill 
articles which could not otherwise be perforated with a drill. Do not 
use broken broaches to make your drills, as the steel in them is often 
burned, rendering the metal unfit for use in small tools. In order to 
make the quality of your drill a certainty, always take a new piece o€ 
round steel for the purpose. 

To Harden Steel in Petroleum. According to B. Morgossy, the 
articles to be hardened are first heated in a charcoal fire, and, after 
thoroughly rubbing with ordinary washing soap, heated to a cherry red. 
In this condition they are plunged into petroleum ; ignition of the petro- 
leum need not be feared if no flame is near at hand. Articles hardened 
by this method show no crack, do not warp if plunged endwise, and after 
hardening remain nearly white, so they can be blued without further 
preparation. 

Hardening Liquids. If water is used for hardening, 32° F. will be 
found about right for the sized articles hardened by watchmakers, and if 
the article is very small, ice may be added to the water. A solution com- 
posed of i quart of water, i^ lbs. of sal-ammoniac, 10 oz. of refined 
borax, i}£ ozs. red wine, is used extensively for fine cutlery. A mixture 
of I lb. of resin, 3 ozs. of lard, 1^^ lb. train oil and ^ oz. of assafoetida is 
said to be excellent for fine steel work. 

Directions for Plunging when Hardening. Thin articles, as steel 
plates, or articles of small diameter, such as drills, should always be 
plunged into the hardening compound, end or edge foremost to avoid 



311 Stogden. 

warping. If an article is thicker on one side than the other, as a knife 
blade, the thick side should enter the compound first. Heat the article 
only as far as you wish to harden it and immerse it as far as it has been 
made red hot. 

Tempering by Electricity. Watch springs have of late years been 
successfully tempered with the aid of electricity. The steel ribbon is 
passed through a bath of oil and an electric current of sutficient strength 
to keep it at the proper heat is passed through the ribbon. The heating 
is thus effected without contact with the atmosphere and the spring is 
not liable to blister as inordinary methods. The temper is drawn in the 
same manner and the heat can be controlled to a nicety and is uniform 
throughout. The spring is then finished by means of rolls. 

Glass Polisher for Steel. French plate glass, ground on one side, 
makes a good polisher for flat work. A piece four inches square, nicely 
finished on the edge, is about the right size. 

Tempering Magnets. M. Ducoetet uses the following process for 
tempering and magnetizing steel to be used as magnets. Two soft iron 
pole pieces are placed in the bottom of a water tight vessel and are con- 
nected with the poles of a powerful electro-magnet. The vessel is 
partially filled with water, and oil is poured into the vessel, which floats 
upon the surface of the water. The red hot bar is then passed through 
the liquids and comes in contact with the magnets. This softens the 
steel without depriving it of its power of being magnetized. 

To Engrave Name on Steel Tools. Coat the tool or article, if made 
of iron or steel, with a thin layer of wax, draw the name, initials or 
design through the wax, exposing the metal, and place the tool in a mix- 
ture of 6 parts by weight of water and i part of sulphuric acid. In a few 
hours remove, and if etched sufficiently, wash in clean water and dissolve 
the wax by heat. 

STOGDEN, MATTHEW. Inventor of the half-quarter repeating 
mechanism most used in English watches. He died in abject poverty, 
about 1770, at an advanced age. 

STOP WORK. The mechanism which prevents the overwinding ot 
a timepiece. 

STRAIGHT LINE LEVER. That form of a lever escapement in 
which the escape wheel arbor, pallet and balance staff are all planted in 
a straight line, as in Fig. 266. 



stud. 



313 



STUD. A small piece of metal which is slotted to receive the outer 
coil of the hair spring. 

SULLY, HENRY. Born in 1680 and died in 1728. A celebrated 
watchmaker and the author of a work on horology. He was an an Eng- 
lishman by birth, though he resided most of the time in France, where 
he died. 




Fig. 266. 

SUNK SECONDS. A watch in which the portion of the watch 
dial traversed by the seconds hand is sunk below the level of the rest of 
the dial. With sunk seconds, the hour hand may be closer to the dial 
than it otherwise could. 



SURPRISE PIECE. A loose plate under the quarter snail of a 
repeating watch, which prevents the quarter rack reaching the snail if the 
mechanism is set going at the hour. 

SWEEP SECONDS. A movement in which a long seconds hand 
moves from the center of the dial instead of at the bottom, as in chrono- 
graphs and split seconds watches. 

TABLE. The roller of a lever escapement that carries the impulse 
pin. 

TAIL STOCK. The sliding block or support in a lathe that carries 
the tailscrew. 



313 



Tavan. 



Half Open Tailstock. The half open tailstock shown in Fig. 267, is 
cut away so that the spindles can be laid in, instead of being passed 




Fig. 267. 

through the holes. This fixture will be found exceedingly convenient 
when several spindles are to be used for drilling, counterboring and cham- 
fering. 

Screw Tailstock. This attachment is very convenient for heavy 
drilling, the spindle 
being moved by a 
screw with hand 
wheel attached, as 
shown in Fig. 268. 

Traverse Spindle 
Tailstock. This 
attachment, shown in 
Fig. 269, will be 
found very conven- 
ient for straight drill- 
ing. Where the watch- ^'9- 2'^^- 

maker has a great deal of drilling to do, he will find this attachment 
invaluable. 

TAVAN, ANTOINE. A celebrated French watchmaker who resided 
the better part of his life in Geneva. Born at Aost, France, in 1749 and 
died at Geneva in 1836. 

TAVERNIER, LOUIS. A celebrated Parisian watchmaker who 
lived about 1800. He studied the cylinder escapement with great care 
and with considerable success. 

TESTING NEEDLES. Small strips of steel with gold points, 
usually running from 4k. to 20k. inclusive, and used in conjunction with 
a touchstone for determining the quality of gold. The gold to be tested is 




Third Wheel. 314 

first rubbed upon the touchstone, and the needle which most closelv 
approximates to it in quality, in the judgment of the operator, is also 
rubbed upon the stone. The two marks are then treated with nitric 
acid and the difference in color indicates the difference in quality of the 
two marks. See Touchstone. 




Fig. 269. 

THIRD WHEEL. The wheel in the train of a watch which lies be- 
tween the center and fourth wheels. 

THIOUT, M. Watchmaker to the Duke of Orleans. In 1741 he 
published a work called " Traite d'Horlogerie," in two volumes. 

THOMAS, SETH. One of the early American manufacturers of 
clocks. In 1810 Eli Terry sold out his clock factory to 
Seth Thomas and Silas Hoadley, two of his leading work- 
men, and this factory was the leading one for many years. 
The present corporation, known as the Seth Thomas 
Clock Company, is the direct successor of this humble 
beginning. March 31, 1853, the Seth Thomas Clock Com- 
pany was organized with a capital of $75,000. Seth 
Seth Thomas. Thomas died January 20, 1859, being 73 years of age. 

THREE-QUARTER PLATE. A watch in which enough of the 
upper plate is cut away to allow of the balance vibrating on a level with 
the plate. 

TIME. The measure of duration. A particular period of duration. 
Time is measured by the interval between two successive transits of a 
celestial body over the same meridian ; if measured by the sun, it is 
called solar tiine, or if by a star, sidereal time. 

Absolute Time. Time irrespective of local standards or epochs; 
time reckoned for all places from some one common epoch; as all 
spectators see a lunar eclipse at the same instant of absolute time. 



315 



Time. 



Apparent Time. Time as reckoned by the sun ; the instant of the 
transit of the sun's center over the meridian constituting 12 o'clock. 

^Astronomical Time. Mean solar time, reckoned by counting the 
hours continuously up to twenty-four from one noon up to the next. 

Civil Time, The reckoning of time for the common purposes of life 
The division of time into years, months, days, hours and seconds. 

Sidereal Time. Time regulated by the transit, over the meridian of 
a place of the first point of Aries, or the vernal equinox, and chiefly 
used in astronomical observations. 

The sidereal day is 3 m., 56 s. shorter than the mean solar day. The 
pendulum of a clock, to show sidereal time, must be a trifle shorter than 
that of one used to show mean time, both clocks having the same train. 
On or about the 15th of April the two clocks would agree, bui from that 
time on there would be a divergence of 3 m., 56 s. per day. In the 
absence of a transit instrument and a table giving the right ascension of 
particular stars, Britten advises the selection of a window having a 
southern aspect, from which a chimney, or a steeple, or any other fixed 







Stars Gain 


. 






Stars Gain 


. 


Days. 








Days, 










Hours. 


Minutes. 


Seconds. 


Hours. 


Minutes. 


Seconds. 


1 





3 


56 


11 





43 


15 








7 


52 


12 





57 


11 


3 





11 


48 


13 





51 


7 


4 





15 


44 


14 





55 


3 


5 





19 


39 


15 





58 


58 


6 





23 


35 


16 




2 


54 


7 





27 


31 


17 




6 


50 


8 





31 


27 


18 




10 


46 


9 





35 


23 


19 




14 


42 


10 





39 


19 


20 




18 


38 



point, may be seen. To the side of the window attach a thin plate of 
brass having a small hole in it, in such a manner that by looking through 
the hole toward the edge of the elevated object, some of the fixed stars 
may be seen; the progress of one of these being watched, the instant it 
vanishes behind the fixed point a signal is made to a person observing 
the clock, who then notes the exact time at which the star disappears, 
and on the following night the same star will vanish behind the same 
object 3 m., 56 s. sooner. If a clock mark 10 h. when the observation is 
made, when the star vanishes the following night it should indicate 3 m., 
56 s. less than 10 h. If several cloudy nights have rendered it impossible 



Timing. 316 

to compare the clock with the star, it will then be necessary to multiply 
3 m.,56s. b}"^ the number of days that have elapsed since the observation, 
and the product deducted from the hour the clock then indicates gives 
the time the clock should show. The same star can only be observed 
during a few weeks, for, as it gains nearly a half hour a week, it will, in 
a short time, come to the meridian in broad daylight and become invis- 
ible; to continue the observation, another star must be selected. In 
making the observation, care must be taken that a planet is not observed 
instead of a star; Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are those most likely to 
occasion this error, more especially Saturn, which, from being the most 
distant of the three, resembles a star of the first magnitude. The planets 
may, however, be easily distinguished, for being comparatively near the 
earth, they appear larger than the stars ; their light also is steady because 
reflected, while the fixed stars scintillate and have a twinkling light. A 
sure means of distinguishing between them, is to watch ? star attentively 
for a few nights ; if it change its place with regard to the other stars, it is 
a planet. See Transit Instrument, 

Solar Time. Sun time. Time marked by the diurnal revolution of 
the earth with regard to the sun. A mean solar day is the average 
length of all the solar days in the year. The difference between true and 
mean time is called the equation of time. There are only four days in 
the year when the apparent and mean time are the same, and the equa- 
tion of time nothing. These are December 24th, April 15th, June 15th, 
and August 31st. Between December 24th and April 15th, and between 
June 15th and August 31st, the apparent is always before the mean time, 
whilst in the remaining interval it is later. 

TIMING. See Adjustment. 

TIMING SCREWS. Quarter screws of a compensation balance. 

TOMPION, THOMAS. Born in 1638 and died in 1713. He was 
buried in Westminister Abbey. 

TOUCHSTONE. A piece of black basaltic 
rock, obtained chiefly from Silesia and used for test- 
ing the quality of gold. The piece of gold, or metal 
to be tested, is drawn upon the surface of the touch- 
stone, and the streak left is treated with nitric acid. 
Nitric acid eats away the streak, if it is brass or 
Thx)s. Tompion. ^^^ similar alloy, while if gold only the alloy in 
the gold is attacked. Testing needles of known alloy are then rubbed 
on the surface of the touchstone, and treated with the acid, and a com- 
parison made. See Testing Needles. 




317 Tourbillion. 

TOURBILLION. A carriage in which the escapement of a watch 
is fitted, so that it revolves around the fourth wheel. The idea of the 
tourbillon, one of the almost numberless inventions of Breguet, is to get 
vid of position errors. 

TRAIN. The toothed wheels in a watch or clock that connect the 
barrel or fusee with the escapement. In a going-barrel watch, the teeth 
around the barrel drive the center pinion, to which is attached the center 
wheel ; the center wheel drives the third wheel pinion, which carries the 
third wheel ; the third wheel drives the fourth wheel pinion, on which 
the fourth wheel is mounted; the fourth wheel drives the escape pinion, 
to which the escape wheel is fixed. The number of teeth in the various 
wheels and pinions is determined by the following considerations: The 
center arbor, to which the minute hand is fixed, always turns once in an 
hour, the fourth wheel, to the arbor of which the seconds hand is fixed, 
turns once in a minute, so that the product obtained by multiplying 
together the number of teeth in the center and third wheels must be 60 
times the product obtained by multiplying together the numbers of third 
and fourth pinions. Two other points may be settled before deciding the 
rest of the train. 1st. The number of turns the barrel makes in 30 
hours, which is the time allowed from winding to winding. Four turns 
would be a suitable number, and in that case the barrel would contain 
7^ times the number of teeth in the center pinion. 2nd. The number 
of vibrations made by the balance in an hour. If 18,000 be decided on, 
then, assuming the escape wheel to have the usual number of 15 teeth, 
the escape pinion must make 10 rotations a minute, and the fourth wheel 
must have 10 times as many teeth as the escape pinion. The barrel 
teeth and center pinion, which have considerable pressure to bear, must 
be of adequate strength, but the pitch of the teeth and size of the wheels 
are gradually diminished as the train nears the escapement. In the last 
wheels of a train, small and light wheels are especially needed, so that 
they get quickly into motion directly the escapement is unlocked, and 
are stopped with but little shock when the escapement is locked again. 
The remarks on the train of a going-barrel watch apply equally to the 
going train of a clock. The considerations which guide in deciding the 
numbers for the striking train of a clock are the number of blows to be 
struck from winding to winding, the fall of the weight or turns of the 
barrel or fusee, as the case inay be, and the number of pins in the pin 
wheel. English lever watches usually have either a 16,200 or an 18,000 
train. American and Swiss watches, both lever and horizontal, have 
18,000 trains as a rule. 

TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. A telescope mounted at right 
angles to a horizontal axis. Used in connection with a clock or watch 
for obtaining the time of transit of a heavenly body over the meridian of 



Transit Instrument. 



318 



a place. To watchmakers who make any pretense of a knowledge of 
their business, nothing can be more desirable or useful. A vague im- 
pression exists among them, that the transit instrument, used for this 
purpose, is so closely allied to the scientific, as to be serviceable only in 
the hands of the professional astronomer. This fact, taken in connec- 
tion with the high cost of these instruments hitherto, fully accounts for 
the reason of their unfrequent employment. 

These two causes, preventing the more general use of the transit, no 
longer remain, whatever may have been their force in the past. By an 
improvement in the mode of mounting, a ready means is furnished for 
setting up and placing the instrument in the meridian. Furnished with 
each transit are full printed instructions, describing each part in detail, 
the method of setting up, and taking observations, the whole of which is 
so plain and simple that every purchaser is surprised and gratified to 
find what was supposed to be difl[icult so easy to perform. 

The principle involved in the use 
of the transit instrument is, that when 
in proper position, the center vertical 
line in the field of view of the tele- 
scope, shall be exactly on and repre- 
sent the meridian, or true north and 
6outh line, of the place of observa- 
tion. Hence, from the observed 
time of any heavenly body crossing 
the center or meridian line, may be 
determined the error of the time- 
piece used. The passage of any 
heavenly body across the meridian 
line is called its transit. 

The stand on which the instrument 
rests, consists of two circular plates 
of metal, the lower of which, A, 
is to be screwed to a foundation of 
wood or stone; screw holes being 
^^^' ^^^- provided for that purpose. The 

upper plate, B, turns upon the lower by means of a pivot, and the two 
are clamped together by a clamping screw. In the upper surface of 
the plate B, are sockets for receiving the three points on which the 
frame of the instrument rests. 

When the clamping screw is loosened, ;the entire instrument may be 
easily rotated horizontally upon the lower plate A, and when the clamp- 
ing screw is tightened, the whole is rigidly held in position. 

The telescope is ten inches long and fitted with an axis, the two pivots 
of which rest in the top of the frame F. At X is a sliding tube, which 
adjusts the focus of the object glass. The telescope is furnished with a 




319 Transit Instrument. 

diagonal eye-piece, E, which is made movable in a sliding tube at Y, to 
adjust the focus of the eye-piece. Small screens of colored glass are 
provided to protect the eye from the effects of the rays of the sun. On 
the axis of the telescope is attached a declination circle, D, used only for 
facilitating the finding of stars, when on or near the meridian, but not 
used in taking observations of the sun. Upon the pivots of the telescope 
is placed a riding level, for the purpose of leveling the axis of the tele- 
scope by means of the leveling screw L. 

One of the pivots of the axis rests in a block made moveable by the 
horizontal adjusting screw. 

The instrument must command an unobstructed view of the north 
star, and the sun at noon. Usually, the coping of a brick or stone build- 
ing, easy of access, will be found the most convenient, but in the absence 
of this, a brick or stone pier, from sixteen to twenty-four Inches square, 
built from four feet below to four feet above the ground, would be excel- 
lent, or a post six inches or more in thickness, firmly set in the ground 
would answer a very good purpose. A costly foundation offers no prac- 
tical advantage and its greater expense need not be incurred. At the 
place chosen secure very firmly, a piece of plank two or three inches 
thick, of any suitable size, which should be well leveled, and thoroughly 
painted, top and bottom, to protect it against the action of the weather, 
and upon this plank screw the lower bed plate of the instrument. The 
instrument may be covered with a tight box, constructed to turn water 
and exclude dust, or, if removed after each observation, a tight cover 
should be made for the rotating stand, which must be left in its 
position. 

The instrument is placed in position, or on the meridian line, by setting 
the center line in the field of view of the telescope, on the north star, at 
the time of night the said star is on the meridian, which time is calcu- 
lated for any desired place and furnished in tabular form with each tran- 
sit. Perfectly correct time for this operation, which is very simple, is 
not essential, but only as near as is in common use. 

The instrument must now remain unmoved until a range mark has 
been obtained as follows: 

On the day succeeding the setting of the center line on the north star, 
turn the telescope to the south, and notice some small object of 
a permanent character, which the center line bisects. This object 
is called the range, and may be at any distance - from twenty feet 
to half a mile, but two or three hundred yards will be found best. 
If no convenient object can be selected, a range may be made by paint- 
ing a small round spot on a permanent surface, at a point where the cen- 
ter line will bisect it. Before taking an observation the center line must 
always be set exactly on the range with the screw H, in order to secure 
an accurate adjustment in the meridian. The range may be either north 
or south, but the latter is the more convenient. 



Traverse Spindle Grinder. 320 

The purpose of the range mark is to furnish a means of keeping the 
instrument in the meridian without being obliged to re-set the center line 
on the north star. 

METHOD OF TAKING AX OBSERVATION OF THE SUN. 

Set the center line on the range, if off the same, and carefully level the 
axis, a few minutes before the sun comes in the field of view, which will 
be about four minutes before reaching the center line. As the telescope 
is an inverting one, the sun will appear to come in from the right hand 
side and pass across the field of view. 

When the iirst^ or advancing edge of the sun intersects the center line, 
the time must be noted by the watch, as in exainple. When the sun has 
passed entirely across the center line, which takes about two and a 
quarter minutes, note the time when the last edge intersects the center 
line, as in the same example. 

Time of contact o^ first edge of sun with vertical line ii 43 14.5 

" u i^si u 4* 4* u "... II 45 30. 
I 

Divide by 2 2)23 28 44.5 

11 44 22.2 
Add correction (from table supplied with instrument) 16 12.5 

12 o 347 
Subtract 12 hours 12 

Watch fast 34 seconds, 7 tenths o 34.7 

After adding the above correction, the difference between the result 
and 12 hours will be the amount the watch was faster slow; fast, if more 
than 12 hours, and slow if less. 

TRAVERSE SPINDLE GRINDER. This tool will be found 

very useful for grinding cutters, 
lathe centers, pump centers, 
reamers, counter sinks, squar- 
ing up barrel arbors after hard- 
ening, or any hardened steel 
tool. In the hand of an ingen- 
Fig. 273. ious workman, it will be found 

exceedingly useful, as by its aid a great variety of work can be per- 
formed that cannot be accomplished without it. Fig. 273, is the Moseley 
pattern, and is designed to attach to the slide rest. 

TURNS. A small dead center lathe used but little in this country. 

TWEEZERS. The watchmaker will do well to purchase tweezers 
that are made of non-magnetic material, as they are no more expensive 




321 



Two Pin Escapement. 



than ordinary ones of good make. Steel tweezers often become magnet- 
ized and by their use you convey the magnetism to the delicate parts of 
a movement. There are several makes of non-magnetic tweezers upon 




Fig. 274. 

the market, all of which possess points of excellence. Soldering tweezers 
are made similar to Fig. 274, with hawk bill, for holding work while 
hard or soft soldering. See also Soldering Forceps. 

TWO PIN ESCAPEMENT. A variety of the lever escapement 
having one small gold pin in the lever and two in the table, and the 
unlocking and impulse actions are divided between them. 

UNIVERSAL HEAD. The universal head, shown in Fig. 275, has 
entirely superseded the clumsy universal mandrel in this country. It is 
more accurate, less clumsy and complicated and will perform the 
same work. The face plate is 33^ inches in diameter, but by the use of 
two crescent-shaped slots, it will hold anything in size and shape of 




Fig. 27.5. 

watchwork. The pump center is operated from the back by the rubber 
knob and can be used either with or without a spring. The jaws, which 
will pass the center, are held in position on face plate by springs, and are 
fastened from the back. Peep holes are provided in these heads in order 
that the workman may examine the back of the work at all times. In 
the Moseley head, sliown in Fig. 275, these holes are of taper form. Fig. 



Unlocking Resistance. 



323 



276 shows a universal face plate to be used on chuck in lathe. It is 

smaller and less expensive than the universal head and answers very 

well for some work, but cannot be rec- 

oinmended very highly, as it is not as 

accurate. The pump center is used to 

center from the back any object confined 

in the jaws, but it sometimes becomes 

necessary to mount the object by means of _ 

wax upon a plate and hold the plate in the 

jaws. In such a case, the work must 

necessarily be centered from the front. 

This can be done accurately by means of 

a piece of pegwood, as ordinarily done on 

the lathe, by placing the point in the center ^[g^ 276. 

hole and the pegwood resting on the T rest, and observing if the free end 

of the pegwood remains stationary. See also Centering- Tool. 




UNLOCKING RESISTANCE. The resistance opposed to unlock- 
ing by the adhesion between the locking faces of the pallets and the tips 
of the escape wheel teeth, and in the case of lever pallets by the draw 
of the locking faces. 



VERGE ESCAPEMENT. A recoil escapement in which the pallet 
axis is set at right angles to the axis of the escape wheel. The verge, 
the earliest probably of all the escapements, is shown in the engraving. 
It has no pretensions to accuracy, says Britten, in the presence of such 
escapements as the lever and chronometer. 

The balance in this escapement has no free arc, and its vibration is 
limited to about 110° each way. The escape wheel, or "crown wheel," 
as it is called, has either 11 or 13 teeth, and in the plan of the watch its 
arbor lies horizontally. The balance staff, or verge, is made as small as 
proper strength will allow, and planted close to the wheel, so that the 
tips of the teeth just clear it. The pallets, which form part of the 
verge, are placed at an angle of 95 or 100° with each other. The latter 
angle is generally preferred. 

The drawing is a plan of the escape wheel and verge, as they lie in 
the watch. The width of the pallets apart, from center to center, is 
equal to the diameter of the wheel. A tooth of the escape wheel is just 
leaving the upper pallet (c); as it drops off, the under tooth will reach the 
root of the lower pallet {d), but the motion of the verge will not be at 
once reversed. The escape wheel will recoil until the impetus of the 
balance is exhausted. The teeth of the wheel are undercut to free the 
face of the pallet during the recoil. 

Generally in French, and occasionally in English watches, the pallets 
are even more open. An increased vibration of the balance and less 



323 



Vernier Caliper. 



recoil can be obtained with a larger angle, but to get sufficient impulse 
the verge must be planted closer to the wheel. This necessitates cut- 
ting awaj a part of the body of the verge to free the wheel teeth. Then, 
as the wheel tooth impinges on the pallet almost close to the center of 
the verge, there is more friction on the pivots, and the wheel tooth gets 




Fig. 277. 

so small a leverage that the escapement often sets, unless the balance is 
very light. On the other hand, with the opening between the pallets 
only 90°, as it is in many English watches, the vibration of the balance 
is too small and the recoil too great. An opening of about 100° avoids 
the drawbacks incidental to the two extremes, and may therefore be 
adopted with advantage. 

To ensure good performance the body or arbor of the verge should be 
upright, and when in the frames and viewed through the follower 
potence hole, should be seen crossing the balance wheel hole of the dove- 
tail. The position of the eye should be in a line with the arbor of the 
balance wheel pinion when in the follower; the drops of the pallets 
equal, and the balance wheel teeth true. 



VERNIER CALIPER. See Gauge. 

VERTICAL ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in which 
escape wheel is at right angles to the balance staff or pallet axis. 



the 



VIENNA LIME. A pure anhydrous lime, obtained from Vienna. 
It is extensively used for final polishing purposes, particularly in watch 
factories. The action of Vienna lime is different from most other polish- 
ing agents, for the effect is not produced, as in the case of rouge, by 
simple abrasion, for unless the lime be used while it is slacking, the 
result will not be satisfactory. The material should therefore be kept in 
air-tight bottles, and only enough for immediate use taken out at one 
time. Take a small lump from the bottle, slightly moisten with water 



Vulliamy. 324 

and break down with any clean tool. Spread the lime paste on a box- 
wood slip and apply to the article to be polished, using quick strokes. 

VULLIAMY, BENJAMIN LEWIS. He was born in London, in 
1780, was grandson of Justin Vulliamy, a nativeofSwitzerland, who emi- 
grated to London and became acquainted with Benj. Gray, of Pall Mall, 
married his daughter and succeeded to his business. Benj. Gray was clock- 
maker to the Crown in the reign of George II, and the position has been 
held by the Vulliamy family since his death. Benj. Lewis Vulliamy 
was an earnest student of horology, and was familiar with all the works 
of ancient and modern horologists. All of his productions were remark- 
able for their sterling excellence, but the branch to which he devoted the 
largest portion of his attention and time was the construction of turret 
clocks, and upon that subject he wrote several valuable pamphlets. He 
became a member of the Clockmaker's Company in 1S09. He served 
every office in the Court of the Guild, and was five times elected master- 
He died January 8, 1854. 

WATCH. A small time-piece to be carried in the pocket. The word 
watch is said to be derived from the Saxon ivceccan, to awaken, which 
would seem to indicate that the earlier watches were of the alarm type. 
It is, however, much more probable that the term came originally from 
the watches of the night, and that portable timepieces were invented to 
inark them. 

Cleaning and Repairing. As the movement is taken down, note 
should be taken of any needed repairs^or alterations, either in the watch 
or case. Seethat the]inovement is tight in the case and that the stem 
turns easily. Examine movement carefully with eye glass and if a Swiss 
bridge movement, examine the depths of the wheels, see if ininute wheel 
pinion touches the dial, and if balance pivots have too mucli side shake. 
Try the side shake of a Swiss bridge with a pair of fine and light tweezers. 
See if the guard and banking are correct. In a great many Swiss watches 
and also English watches, the jewel pin is too small for the fork, and 
often it does not enter properly. Memorize these little things as you go 
along, and repair them in this regular order. After examining the 
escapement, let the mainspring down ; after taking the movement out of 
case, remove the hands first, with a modern tool made for that pur- 
pose, that does not interfere with the dial. 

Now remove dial, and notice if it fits right; if the hand arbors come 
in the center of the holes. Oftimes this can be corrected by bending the 
feet with a pair of flat pliers, so the edge of the dial will correspond with 
the movement and the hand arbors. Sometimes, in American watches, 
the screws do not reach the dial feet; alter this by turning the shoulders 
off in lathe, so they will go further in. If the pins (when the dial is 



325 Watch. 

pinned on) are too high above the plate, fill them with a little pin and 
soft solder, and drill or punch new holes in the proper place. When _you 
put a new dial on a Swiss watch, where the feet do not correspond with 
the holes, cut off the feet of new dial and file or grind the enamel flat 
around the feet and grind the enamel awav with an emery wheel, where 
the new feet are to go. Now take a piece of copper wire, long enough 
for both feet, and the proper thickness, put it in lathe and hollow out 
the ends with a graver, so it will hard-solder flat on an old piece of dial 
copper about three-sixteenths of an inch round. If too large, put it in 
the lathe by the foot and turn it off. Now have feet prepared for new 
dial; take a little dissolved shellac and put it on the bottom of each of 
the dial feet and put the feet to their places in the movement plate. 

Slightly moisten the places on the dial, where the new feet come, with 
dissolved shellac, and lay dial on these feet and see that second pivot 
comes properly through the dial, and that the edge of the dial corres- 
ponds with the edge, of the movement plate. Now in this position let 
dial and movemenf'^^over night, and in the morning the feet will be 
hard. Now lift your dial off carefully, turn it upside down, and bend up 
two brass clamps like a hair pin, but not so long, and clamp these feet 
on the flat part and lay this dial on a cork or piece of wood, feet up. 
Now put on your soft solder fluid, and blow a broad flame over it, and 
after the fluid has boiled you can put on your solder and blow again. 
Now dip it in a solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash off with soap 
and water, and brush dipped in clean water after the dirt is removed, 
Then dip it in alcohol, and dry in box- wood saw dust. 

The balance, of course, is removed during this process of fitting the dial. 
Now examine further and we find our center pivot worn and the hole in 
the bridge or upper plate too large. We now turn the pivot smooth with 
a graver, and grind \rith a pivot polisher, or a hand oil stone file, or pen- 
cil made of iron wire. Now clean off with pith, and polish with rouge 
or crocus. Now take the bridge or upper plate, and with a round face- 
punch in staking tool, close the hole. Now use a round broach and open 
the hole to its proper size, so it will fit the pivot correctly. Run this 
broach through, with the bridge screwed to its place, letting the broach 
go through the opposite hole at the same time. Now in an English 
watch, we may need a new bush, as the hole may have been bushed to 
one side and the center wheel be out of upright; but the question is, how 
to make the best job, so it will be strong, neat and workman like. 

If you are compelled to put in a bush, or upright a hole in the center 
of a Swiss, English or American watch, first broach out the hole about 
twice its size and tap it with a fine thread. Now put in a threaded bush 
to fit snug; now rivet it in the staking tool, center the opposite hole in 
the universal head, center with a graver point and drill the bush in the 
lathe with a drill a shade smaller than the pivot. Now broach out in the 
lathe to suit the pivot and turn the bush off nicely with your slide rest. 



Watch. 326 

After sharpening your cutter on an oilstone, run it over a fine emery 
stick to remove the burr on the cutting edge. Now, with moderate high 
speed, you can turn off this bush in good style. Should the endshake be 
too tight, lay your plate (English or full American), on a movement 
cup or ring, and with a wooden punch and hammer punch it outward. 
Treat a mainspring barrel in a similar manner when the end shake of 
the arbor is too tight, by laying it on a small silk spool, one end of the 
spool turned conically inward, so the outer edge only will touch the bar- 
rel. Strike the arbor with a horn, ivory or wooden mallet. 

We oftentimes find American and English center pinions badly worn, 
so that when they are trued and polished up, there will be no shoulder 
left for the cannon pinion. When they are so badly worn as that, take 
a piece of steel, sometimes an old English cannon pinion (this will not 
have to be drilled), put it in lathe and turn a collar out of it, first prepar- 
ing center pinion to receive this collar. Have this collar a little higher 
and a little thicker than the pivot is to be, and to go on loosely. Now 
soft solder it on to its place, wash clean and dry, and put the center 
wheel with its pinion back in the lathe and finish off with graver and 
oil stone, file and rouge, as before mentioned. The collar can be hard- 
ened and tempered in first-class style, by^utting a piece of binding 
wire through it and holding over the lamp and dipping in water or 
oil. Now you can clean it off by running a pointed peg-wood through 
it, then run over it with a fine emery stick, then lay on the bluing 
pan and turn to a dark chestnut color. 

Take the mainspring out of the barrel, hold the arbor in the same way 
and revolve the barrel and you can see if it runs true. Now to true this 
barrel, either Swiss, English, or American, close the top or bottom hole 
with a round-faced punch, in a staking tool. In a Swiss, close the bot- 
tom, and in an English, the top hole. An American seldom needs this 
treatment. Now put barrel together and center it in universal head, and 
with a narrow and short cutter in slide rest open the hole that you closed 
to fit the arbor. When fitted, take it out and revolve it as before and our 
barrel will be dead true. Now in our key- winder Swiss, we find the 
ratchet worn, and it needs a new one. As the arbor and ratchet are one 
piece, we turn the ratchet about half oft' edgewise. Now we turn it 
flatwise, and file or grind the square a little lower, so it will receive the 
new ratchet. This new ratchet must have a recess turned in it to fit over 
the part of the old ratchet. The square hole must fit the square snugly. 
Now, if this new ratchet is not too hard and the teeth not too fine, it will 
last better than the original. Now, in English watches, the square is 
oftentimes badly worn, or too small. In this case, draw the temper of the 
old square, turn it down by holding it in a step chuck by the fusee, tak- 
ing off the great, or fusee wheel, and maintaining ratchet. After turn- 
ing it down and squaring the pivot, cut a left-hand thread in a suitable 
piece of steel, and also on the old square (which, of course, is turned down 



327 Watch. 

in the step chuck), and fit this piece of steei on the old arbor, down to 
the pivot shoulder, against the stop cam. Now turn it down with a graver 
and square up the end in a lathe, and drill a very small hole through 
near the end of the square upper end. Now take and unscrew the new 
square and harden and temper it. Hold it over the lamp by a piece of 
binding wire, and dip in oil when cherry red. Now hold it in a chuck and 
clean it off with an emery stick. Now turn to a dark brown, screw back 
on, and grind and polish up. No graver is needed on this job after it is 
hardened and tempered. The thread need not go all the way down ; half 
way will do, but the new square must go against the shoulder tight up 
to the lower round part of the square. When all done, put the little 
pin through, which keeps it from coming oft' when turned to the right. 

On opening a barrel observe the condition of the mainspring, and the 
inside of the barrel head. Often, in good watches, the inside of the bar- 
rel head is not flat, and the mainspring scrapes it. Turn this flat with 
a step chuck and slide rest, at high speed, and sharpen the cutter as be- 
fore mentioned. Now examine the mainspring, and see if it is the proper 
strength and width, and examine the hook, or brace, and stop work, the 
teeth of the barrel, etc. Now, sometimes in American watches, the barrel 
touches the balance; alter this by countersinking the lower hole of the 
arbor in the movement plate and bending the bridge down a little in the 
center, with a wooden spool and wooden punch, as in endshaking the 
center hole in American watches and the barrel arbor. 

Oftentimes we find the winding pinion too shallow for the bevel wheel. 
Remedy this by either lowering the pinion deeper into the wheel, or the 
wheel into the pinion. Oftentimes, in Waltham watches of the old 
series, the intermediate winding wheel is too deep in the ratchet wheel. 
This can be corrected by the banking screw, by putting in one with a 
larger head. Now, very often the intermediate setting wheel is too shal- 
low in the minute wheel. Correct this by stretching the lever where it 
touches the yoke, and taking off a little of the yoke where it banks for 
the hand setting. Remember that the yoke should be perfectly steady 
and firm, in turning the hands either way. The teeth of the minute 
wheel are often ruined when the cannon pinion is a little tight and the 
intermediate hand setting and minute wheels are too shallow. Never 
touch the arbor of the cannon pinion, but see that it is perfectly smooth 
and round. If the cannon pinion is too high from the plate, turn a little 
off from the under side. Take pinion off with a pair of brass-lined pliers. 
If the cannon pinion is too loose on the arbor (if a stem-wind), punch it 
in the same place, with a punch in the staking tool, having a V shaped 
stump to lay the cannon pinion on, and holding it with a peg-wood, or 
broach, while punching it. Use a punch a little rounding. A cannon 
pinion should work smoothly all around. Now, in a Swiss watch with a 
hollow center pinion, when its arbor is too loose, lay the arbor on a small 
flat anvil, or steel, or brass block, in front of you, not on vise, and hold a 



Watch. 328 

small square file across it, and tap it with a small hammer, rolling it 
while vou tap it. This raises a nice burr all around it. If a little too 
tight, take it off with an oil stone slip. This can be done when the watch 
is clean and running. 

Now examine the click, and see that it has a loose endshake and that 
the point goes freely in and out of the teeth of the wheel. Sometimes 
the point is too blunt, and in many cases, the click spring is too strong. 
Click springs should have a very low temper, and a nice slender shape, 
as the bending they perform is very little. They should not scrape on 
the plate, nor hold the click down too tight, if made like some Elgin 
clicks. 

Now the end shake of the ratchet or ratchet wheel, should have some 
attention. You can easily manipulate this, if the ratchet is between the 
plates. End shake it with the winding arbor. Now we have the stem 
winding wheels, etc., in proper shape. The minute w^heel pinion may 
rub on the dial. Remedy this by grinding the dial away with an emery 
wheel, and oftentimes free the hour wheel the same way. If there is 
too much end shake, put on a spring washer, cut it square and turn the 
corners up. We can examine the train from the third wheel to the 
scape wheel; see if the holes are large, and end shake correct. In some 
cases in Swiss watches, where the thii^d and center wheels are under the 
same bridge, you can sometimes turn the shoulder of the lower pivot 
back. 

Sometimes we find pivots too loose in their holes, and in some cases 
a new jewel can be put in to fit the pivot to a better advantage. In 
this case we must be guided by our practical experience, as in many 
other instances. True pinion or staff in a split chuck, flatten the old 
place, that you are to center with, on an oilstone slip, and center with a 
graver. Nine out of ten Swiss or English, and a few American pinions, 
can be drilled without annealing. Use oil and a properly made drill. 
For a bow drill use a rounding point, and in an American lathe an 
obtuse angle point, to cut only one way. Drill pinion or staff, and if 
you are compelled to draw the temper, do it in the following way: Use 
a cap made of copper wire, holding the opposite end of staff or pinion 
in a pair of brass-lined flat plyers; set copper cap on and blow a sharp 
blaze on the cap to blue article to be drilled. Remove the color with a 
peg-wood and rouge; first with rouge and oil, and then with dry rouge. 
Never leave a pinion or staff discolored. Now, if article cannot be 
trued in split chuck, cement it in, but you can true five out ol every ten 
in a No, i Moseley lathe, without cement. For drilling it is not neces- 
sary that the article should run dead true; but it should be dead true» 
in turning the pivot on and finishing. Now, in pivoting after the hole 
is drilled and the plug is hammered in, turn your pivot to its proper 
shape with a graver and almost with the point. Turn pivot down to 
about three degrees thicker than pivot is to be. Now we have our 



329 Watch. 

pivot finished with a graver. Now use an iron wire, about two milli- 
meters thick and about five inches long, flattened about one inch on one 
end with a file, filing crosswise, and now and then retouching with a fine 
file. This is done so the file lines or marks will retain the grinding 
powder to be used with oil. For a staff pivot, always file the corner oflf 
a little, so it will conform to the conical shoulder, and file or grind, hold- 
ing the oil-stone charged file so the latter and the pivot will traverse at 
an acute angle. This is done to prevent the pivot from lining. Now, if 
down to the desired size and shape, use another such tool, made of brass 
or zinc and charged with rouge and oil, and polish pivot in the same 
manner that jou grind it. At last touch it up with dry rouge and a peg- 
wood. Diamantine and oil or alcohol can also be used to good advan- 
tage before usine the rouge. 

After all repairs, clean your work in the following manner : Use good 
benzine or gasoline and cyanide of potassium; a lump as large as a wal- 
nut to a pint of water. Keep in a glass or china cup with a cover on it. 
Clean the lever in benzine only and dry in the sawdust. Have an alco- 
hol cup, with cover, plenty of clean soft water (in cold weather use warm 
water), and a medium soft brush, like a paint brush, about a half inch 
thick for the benzine. A long, three or four row brush, to use with good 
castile soap and water, and three, four or more pieces of brass wire made 
into loops or strings, by bending an eye on each wire like a fishing hook. 
The wire can be almost any length, from three to six inches, and from 
three-tenths to five-tenths mm. thick. This, with about three pints of 
boxwood sawdust, put through a sieve to get out the coarse particles, and 
a soft camel's hair brush to use dry on the work after it has been cleaned, 
completes the outfit for cleaning. Put a wire through the top plate, 
hang in the benzine, and brush it carefully with the benzine brush, prin- 
cipally the pivot holes. After this has been done, pick up the stem 
wheels, wheels and small parts, unscrew the safety pinions, and wash 
and clean with the wheels. Oil the thread sparingly when you put it 
back. String all of these small parts on a wire. Put the lower plate on 
with the barrel. Use a very thick wire for the balance (dip it separately), 
and move it about in the benzine; dry it in sawdust, dip in cyanide solu- 
tion, in clear water, then in alcohol. Then move it about in the saw- 
dust; this will clean the balance and hair spring and roller. After the 
plates and wheels have gone through the benzine or gasoline, dip them 
in the cyanide and wash with brush and water and castile soap. Dip in 
clean water, then in alcohol and then in sawdust. By this process, every 
speck of oil will be removed, and the gilding or nickle finish will not be 
injured, as with old fogy chalk, and a variety of powder. Sometimes 
the dirt in the pinion is thick and hard, and it must be removed with 
peg-wood; sometimes it has been oiled with linseed oil and left to dry; 
this can be boiled off in oil and cleaned as mentioned. To get dirt or 
hard gum out of the wheel teeth, make a kind of pad with stiff writing 



Watch. 330 

paper, draw the edge of these papers through the teeth ; this will clean 
them nicelj. When taking the cleaned parts from the sawdust, hold 
them with Dennison's watch papers, and brush off with a three or four 
row soft camel or fine goat hair brush. In setting the watch up, set the 
stem work up first and oil it properly. Right here, in oiling, is where it 
requires judgment. For the stem work use a heavier oil than for the 
train. Use refined clock oil for the stem wheels, as thej necessarily 
require a heavier oil, and it also has less tendency to spread. Use watch 
oil in oiling the center pivots, and they, being large, should have more 
oil than the third, fourth and scape wheels, etc. Put the proper amount 
of oil on the end-stone, or cap jewel, before putting the latter to its place; 
also the barrel arbor. Oil the pallet faces sparingly before putting the 
lever to its place. Now if your balance and hair spring arc^true and in 
poise, and the pivots have their proper freedom and end shake, and the 
roller its proper freedom, and everything is all right throughout, your 
watch will move off all right To ascertain if exactly in beat, hold a 
peg-wood against the teeth of the fourth wheel, and move it slightly for- 
ward, and observe the motion of the balance. If one pallet throws the 
balance further than the other, turn the hair spring by the collet slot, so 
that the lift will be equal on both pallets. When in beat, examine the 
escapement again ; see if the balance clears the stud, cock, center wheel, 
etc. See if all the screws are tight, and by all means have the hair 
spring so the second coil will not get into the curb pins. After this the 
train can be oiled. The barrel pivot next to the ratchet, or ratchet 
Avheel, should be oiled before the ratchet wheel is put on. It is well to 
oil the balance jewel holes after it has been put in beat, on account of 
dragging in dust with the pivots if they should be oiled before. After 
this put on the dial wheels; do not oil the minute wheel posts; see that 
the hour wheel has its proper end shake. In cheap watches put on a thin 
washer to steady the hour hand and wheel ; put the dial on, and see that 
the second and hour wheel sockets are in the center of the holes after the 
dial is properly fastened. If you have any steel hands to bend, it will 
pay you to bend them with a pair of hot tweezers, as this will prevent 
breaking them. Now set your second hand with your second pendulum 
regulator, and regulate pendant up. Meantime you can clean the case 
with water, ammonia and a soft cotton rag. An old tooth brush can be 
used in the corners. Stiff joints in front case can be loosened up with 
benzine. This will take the dirt out, and the joints will work free. 
Cases should be cleaned, like all other repaired work. Often we find 
balance hole jewels entirely too thick, so they will take an unreasonably 
long pivot to reach through them. To remedy this, use an iron point 
charged with diamond powder, that fits the concave of the jewel, and 
then polish in the same manner with a finer grade of diamond powder, 
diamantine and rotten stone. Keep the jewel wet with water in grind- 
ing and polishing, and use the highest speed you can produce. Care 



831 Watch Bow Plyers. 

must be taken in this operation, as it requires a little experience. Like 
everything else, jou will find a great deal of difference in grinding a 
garnet or a ruby or sapphire, also in polishing them. Zinc and lead 
points are used in polishing with diamantine and rotten stone and water. 
If the above process is understood it can be quickly done. The hole can 
also be polished, but in some cases it will pay better to put in a new and 
perfect jewel. 

Sizes of Watch Movements. Swiss and French watches are meas- 
ured by the French ligne(line) which is one-twelfth of an inch of a Paris 
foot. One line equals .0S8814 of an English inch, or 2.25583 mm. The 
movements are spoken of as 14-line, 18-line, 19-line, etc. Mr. Aaron L. 
Dennison is said to be the inventor of the system employed for the siz- 
ing of American watches and he first applied it to the watches made by 
the American Horologe Company, about 185 1. He took one inch as a 
basis of measurement and called ito; he then took a second inch and 
divided it into 30ths and numbered the movements according to the 
number of 3oths that they exceeded an inch. For example, a watch 
that measured i 16-30 inch, was called a i6-size, and one that measured 
I 18-30 inch was called a iS-size, etc. 

WATCH BOW PLIERS. Pliers of a peculiar shape, as shown in 
Fig. 278, and used for manipulating watch bows. 




Fig. 278. 

WATCH CASE TOOL. The Hopkins' patent watch case tool is 
designed for the two-fold purpose of easing a case when it opens too 
hard, and for making one stay shut when it opens too easy. It is illus- 
trated in Fig. 279. The part Z> is intended only for use when the spring 
catch of a hunting case has worn the case so that it will not stay shut. 

For making a back case stay shut when it opens too easily, use the 
cutting tooth 5, in the following manner: Rest the beveled edge 
of the tool from A to C, down level on the ledge against which the 
dome or back case closes, as represented in the illustration, taking care 
to keep the end A as well as the tooth B down level on the ledge, and 
inward against the part to be re-undercut, in which position, with the 
end Z> resting in the hollow of 3'our right hand, back of the little fin- 
ger, and with your thumb resting on the inner cap to steady your hand, 



Watch Hand Pliers. 



333 



hold the tool thus quite still, and with jour left hand give a circular 
movement to the watch, crowding the part to be under cut against the 
tooth B^ that is, instead of shoving the tool forward to produce the 
cutting, hold the tool still, and crowd the part of the case to be cut 
against it as described. By thus renewing the under cut of the catch 
edge, even a badly worn case may be made to shut and stay shut nicely. 




Fig. 279. 

For easing the cap or the back case of a watch when it opens too 
hard, rest the end A^ of the tool, down on the inside of the dome, with 
the handle inclining backward at an angle of about 45°, and with one of 
the sharp edges extending from A to C, brought to bear against the snap 
edge that requires to be eased, in such a way that it will give a shaving 
(not a scraping) cut; carefully shave off the edge, thus, to the extent 
required. In this way even the most delicate case may be eased 
without the slightest marring or injury to it. In case of roughness of 
the snap edge, burnish it carefully with the back of the tool; or rubbing 
a bit of beeswax around the edge will often be found of service in cases 
of this kind. 



WATCH HAND PLIERS. Fig. 280 shows Horton's combination 
watch hand pliers for removing watch hands, second, hour and minute. 
It also takes the place of the 9-hole hand sliding tongs. 




Fig. 280. 
WATCH PAPERS. These were circular pieces of paper, silk, vel- 
vet, or muslin, placed in the outer cases of the old watches, and were 
decorated with verses or devices ; some of them were very elaborate 
specimens of scroll work, and had a miniature painted in the center, others 
merely bore verses. Later this same device was used by repairers as a 
means of placing a business card in the watch. Many old watches in 
various collections contain over a dozen of these cards, of repairers in 
whose hands the watch has been. 



833 



Watchmakers. 



WATCHMAKERS. Sometimes the watchmaker and jeweler is 
desirous of telling how old a certain movement inay be and the follow- 
ing alphabetical list of watch and clock makers may aid him in fixing 
the age approximately. The date after the name gives approximately 
the year in which the watchmaker was in business. The date is only 
approximate and is based on the year in which he became a member of 
the Clockmakers' Company, if an Englishman, and in the case of watcl; 
makers of other countries is based upon reliable data, so that as a whole 
the dates are very nearly correct. 



Abbott, John, L. C. 1708. 
Abbott, Peter, L. C. 1V19. 
Abbott, John, L. C. 1740. Son of 

Peter, 
Adams, Francis, L. C. 1840, 
Adams, J., L. C. 1843. 
Addis, William, I.. C. 1756. 
Addis, Geo, Curson, L, C. 17S5. 
Alcock, Thomas, L. C, 16P>0. 
Allen, Elias, L. C, 1630. 
Almond, Ralph, L. C. 1670, 
Ambrose, Edward, L, C, 1637 
Ames, Richard, L. C. 1653. Died 1679 
Ames, Richard, L. C. 1677. 
Andrews, John, L. C, 1688. 
Appleby, Joshua, L. C, 1735, 
Archer, Henry,* I.. C. 1630, 
Arnold, John, 1760, Born 1744, Died 

Aug. 25, 1799. 
Arnold, John Roger, L. C. 1740. 
Askel, Elizabeth, L. C. 1740. 
Aspinwall, Sam'l, I.. C. 1590, 
Atkins, Francis, I.. C, Born 1730, Died 

1809. 
Atkins, Geo , L. C, Born March 25, 

1767. Died 1855. Son of Francis. 
Atkins, Sam'l Elliott, L. C. 1S31. 
Avehne, Daniel, L. C. 1763. Died Aug-., 

1772. 



B 



Backquett, David,t L, C, 1632. 
Bailey, Jeflery, I.. C. 1665. 
Barrand, Paul P., E. C. 1802. 



L. — Carried on business in Eondon. 

C, — Member of the Clockinakers' Com- 
pany, 

*One of the first wardens of the Clock- 
makers' Company and a charter mem- 
ber. 



Barrow, Nathaniel, L. C. 1680. 

Barrow, Sam'l, L. C. 1696. 

Barrow, John, L. C, 1705. 

Basire,John, L, C. 1760, 

Bartram, Simon, t E, C. 1630, 

Bange, Edward,:^ L, C. 1700. 

Bayesjohn. E. C. 1658. 

Bayley, Thomas, E, C, 1785. 

Baylie, Jeffry, E. C. 1650. 

Beauvais, Simon, L. C, 1690, 

Beck, Christopher, E. C, 1785. 

Beckner, Abraham, E. C. 1640. Died 
1665. 

Bell, Benj, E. C, 1660. Died 1694. 

Benn, Anthony, E. C. 175.5. Died 1763. 

Bennett, John, E, C. 1850- 

Berry, John, E. C. 1715. 

Berthond. Ferdinand. Born 1729, Died 

1807. 
Berthoud, Eouis. 1775, 
Bertram, William, E. C. 1720. Died 

Aug., 1733. 
Bidlake, Francis, E. C. 1800. 
BilHnghurst, Hen., E. C. 1760. 
Blackborow, Jas., L, C. 1730, Died 

July, 1746. 
Blackburn, William, E, C. 17S5. 
Blisse, Ambrose, E. C, 1656, 
Bosley, Chas., E. C. 1760. 
Bouchet,J., L. C. 1728. 
Bouquet, David, E, C. 1640. Died 1665, 
Bouquett, Solomon, E, C, 1650. 
Bowen, Francis, E. C. 1650. 
Bowley, Devereux, E. C. 1718. Born 

1697. Died 1773. 
Boyear, William, E, C. 1633, 
Bradley, Eangley, E, C. 1719. 
Breguet, Abraham Eouis, Paris. Born 
1747. Died 1823, 

^Charter member of the Clockmakers' 

Company. 
^An apprentice of Thos, Thompion. 



Watchmakers. 



334 



Brooke, John, L. C. 1632. 
Brown, Henton, L. C. 1726, 
Brown, James. L. C. 1761. 
Browne, John, L. C. 1680. 
Bucklee, David, L. C, IT'SS. 
Bull,John,tL. C. 1632. 
Bullby, John.t L. C. 1632. 
Burgis,John,t L. C. 1622. 
Bushman, John Baptist, L. C. 1785. 



Coxeter, John, L. C. 1650. 
Coxeter, Nicholas, L. C. 1650. 
Crayle, Richard, L,. C. 1630. 
Crouch, Edward, L. C. 1711. 
Cumining-, Alexander, L. C. 1760. 

Died 1813. 
Cuper, Josias,t L. C. 1632. 



Cabrier, Charles, L. C. 1697. 
Callet, F., Paris, Born 1744. Died 1798. 
Cam, William, L. C. 1686. 
Carlton, John, L. C. 1630. 
Carrington. Robt., L,. C. 1760. 
Carrington, Thomas, L. C. 1762. 
Carrington, George, L, C. 1785. 
Carpenter, Thos., L. C. 17S5. 
Carter, William, L. C. 1800. 
Carter, John, L. C. 1825. Died May 

5, 1878. 
Cavendish, Richard, L. C. 1800. 
Cext, Cathrine, L. C. 1735. 
Chamberlain, Nath., L. C. 1700. 
Charlstrom, William, L. C. 1800. 
Charrington, Saml,, L. C. 1756. Died 

1768. 
Chater, Eliezer, L. C. 1760. 
Chater, James, L, C. 1780. 
Chater & Son, L. C. 1790. 
Cheney, Wither, L. C. 1768. 
Child, Richard.t L, C. 1632. 
Child, Henry, L. C, 1640. Died 1665. 
Chisman, Timothy, L. C. 1785. 
Clarke, George,t L. C. 1632. 
Clarke, Henry, L. C. 1817. 
Claxton, Thomas, L. C. 1656. 
Clay, William, I.. C. 1656. 
Clement, William, L. C. 1685. 
Clerk, George, L. C, 1785. 
Clewes, James, L. C. 1670. A great 

clockmaker. 
Closon, Peter, L. C. 1625. 
Clows, John, L. C. 1707. 
Collmgridge, Edmund, L, C. 1800. 
Comfort, William, J.. C. 1656, 
Cooke, I>ewes,t L. C. 1630. 
Cooke, John, L. C. 1656. 
Copeland, Alex., I.. C. 1800, 
Copley, Thomas, L. C. 1632. 
Coulson, Robert, L. C. 1800. 

t Charter member of the Clockmaker's 
Company. 



Daniell, William,t L. C. 1632. 
Daniell, Isaac, L. C. 1636. 
Dawson, Thomas.t L. C. 1630. 
Day, Edmund, L. C. 1692. 
Debaufre, James, L.C. 1712. 
Debaufre, Peter, E. C. 1689. 
Decka,John, L, C. 1757, 
DeCharmes, Simon, L. C. 1691, 
Delander, Daniel, L. C. 1699, 
Delander, James, L. C, 1668, 
Delander, John, L, C, 1670, 
Delander, Nath,, L. C. 1668. 
Delander, Nath., L. C. 1740. 
DeLaundre, Peter, L. C. 1640. 
Dent, William, J., C, 1674. 
Desbois, Daniel. L. C. 1825. 
Deuchesne, Pierre, Paris. 1740. 
DeWellke, Christianus, L, C, 1630. 
Dolley, Thomas, L, C. 1800. 
Dorrell, William, L, C. 17S5. 
Drake, John, L, C. 1656. 
Droeshout, John,t L. C. 1632. 
Drury, James, L. C, 1720, 
DuChesne, Claudius, L. C. 1693, 
Duncombe, R.Jr., L, C. 1790, 
Dunlop, Conyers, L. C. 1750. 
Durand, Oswald.t L. C. 1630, 
Dutton, Mathew, L. C. 1792. 



East, Edward,+ L. C. 1630. 
East,Jeremie, L. C. 1656. 
Ebsworth, John, L. C. 1665. 
Edlin, Geo., L. C. 1810. 
Ellet, William, L. C. 1771. 
Ellicott,John,§ L. C. 1726. 
ElHcott, Edward, L, C. 1823. Died 

July, 1836. 
Erbery, Henry, L. C. 1656. 
Etherington, George, L, C. 16S4 
Everell,John, I.. C, 1730. 
Exelby, James, I.. C. 1718. 

§ Clockmaker to King George III. 



335 



Watchmakers. 



Faulkner, Edward, L. C. 1727, 
Feilder, Thomas, L. C. 1 707. 
Fenn, Daniel, L. C. 1759. 
Fenn, Samuel, L. C. 1785. 
Fenn, Joseph, L. C. 1831. 
Finch, John, L. C. 1697. 
Fisher, Rebeckah, L. C. 1720. 
Foreman, Francis,t L. C. 1630. 
Foreman, Michael, L. C. 1800. 
Francis, William, L. C. 1800. 
Frodsham, William James, L. C, 1802. 

Died June 28, 1850. 
Frodsham, Charles, I^. C. 1845. 
Fromanteel, A., L. C. 1632. 



Ganthony, Richard, L. C. 1820. 
Ganthony. Richard Pinfold, L. C. 1833. 
Gibbs, Thomas, L. C. 1700. 
Gibson, Edward, L. C. 1785. 
Gibson, James, L. C. 1660, 
Gillpine, Edward, L. C. 1630. 
Gilpin, Edmund,! L. C. 1632. 
Glenny, Joseph, L. C. 1800. 
Glover, Boyer, L. C. 1760. 
Godbud, William, L. C. 1656, 
Goode, Charles, L. C. 1686. 
Goodwin, Thomas, I.. C. 1657. 
Goujon, Stephen, L. C. 1752. 
Grant, John, L. C. 1781. 
Grant, John,«[ L. C. 1828. 
Graven, William, L. C. 1829. 
Graves, Benjamin, L, C. 1697, 
Gray, Timothy, L. C. 1633. 
Graham, George, I^. C. 17t5. Born 

July 7, 1673, Died Nov. 20, 1751. 
Green, James, L, C. 1664. 
Green, James, L, C., 1776. 
Green, John, L. C. 1711. 
Green, Joseph, L. C. 1723. 
Greene, James, L. C. 1685. 
Gregory, Jeremie, E. C. 1652. Died 

1685. 
Gregory, Jeremeah, L. C. 1694. 
Gregory, Robert, L. C. 1678. 
Gregory Thomas, L. C. 1671. 
Grennel, Richard, L. C. 1735. 

tCharter member of the Clockmakers' 

Company. 
^Five times master of the Clockmakers' 

Company. 



Gretton, Charles, L. C. 1672. 
Griffiths, Edward, L. C. 1800. 
Grimes, Thomas, L. C. 1670. 
Grinkin Robert,t L.^C. 1632. 
Grinkin, Edmund, L. C. 1656. 
Grove, Richard, h. C. 1785. 
Guy, Henry, L. C. 1702. 
Guy, Charles, L. C. 

H 

Racket, Symon,t L, C, 1632. 
Halsted, Robt., E. C. 1690. 
Hamilton, Dr. Robt., L. C. 1784. 
Hancorne, Thomas, L. C. 1680. 
Harker, G., L. C. 1842. 
Harper, Henry, L C. 1664. 
Harris, John,t L. C. 1630. 
Harris, Anthony, L. C. 1683. 
Harris, Henry, L. C. 1711. 
Harris, William, L. C. 1821. 
Harrison, John, L. C. 1720. Born 1693. 

Died March 24, 1776. 
Hatton, Jos. York, L. C. 1800. 
Hatton, James. 1810. 
Hayes, Walter, L. C. 1670. 
Heerman,John, E. C. 1691, 

Hemmen, L. C, 1646. 

Henshaw, Walter, L, C, 1685, 
Herbert, Cornelius, L.C, 1720, 
Herring, Jos., L. C, 1770. 
Higgs, Peter, L. C. 1759. 
Hill, Benj., E. C. 1650. 
Hill, John, L. C. 1630. 
Hiorne,John, E. C. 1736. 
Hobson,John, E. C. 1630. 
Hodges, Nathaniel, E. C. 1681. 
Hohwii, Andreas, Amsterdam. Born 

1803. Died 1886. 
Holden, Onesiphorus, E. C. 1630. 
Holland, George, E. C, 1630. 
Holland, Thomas, E. C. 1642, 
HoUidaie, Edward, E, C, 1656. 
Holloway, Robert, E. C. 1682, 
Home, Samuel, E. C. 1660- 
Home, Henry, E. C, 1760, 
Horsman, Stephen, E. C. 1709. 
House, Thomas, E. C. 1632, 
Howse, William, E. C. 1769. 
Howse, Charles, E, C. 1779. 
Howse, John, E. C, 1672, 
Hubert, James, E, C. 1700. 
Hubert, Charlotte, E. C. 1730. 

JChronometer maker to the Dutch Ma- 



Watchmakers. 



336 



Hubert, David, L. C. 1735. 
Hue, Pierry, L. C. 1632. 
Hughes, Thomas, L. C. 1734. 
Hug-g-eford, Ignatius, L. C. 1670. 
Hunt, John, L. C. 1670. 
Hunter, Thos. Sr., L. C, 1780, 
Hunter, Thos. Jr., L. C. 1798. 



I 



Ireland, Henry, L. C. 1668. 
Irving, Alexander, L. C. 1795. 

J 

Jackson, John, L. C. 1788. 
Jackson, John, Jr., L. C. 1813. 
Jackson, Martin, L. C. 1713. 
Jackson, Richard, L. C. 1632. 
Jaques, William, L. C. 1708. 
Jarratt,John William, L, C. 1785. 
Janatt, Richard, L. C. 1680. 
Johnson, Thomas, L. C. 1720. 
Johnson, John, L. C. 1760. 
Johnson, Roger. L. C. 1630. 
Jones, Evan, L. C. 1656. 
Jones, Henry, L. C. 1663. 
Jones, Henry, L. C. 1697. 
Jones, Henry, L. C. 1680. 
Jones, John, L. C. 1754. 
Jone.s, Owen, L. C. 17S5. 
Jones, William, L. C. 1785. 

K 

Knibb,Jos., L. C. 1670. 
Kotsford, William, L. C. 1685. 



Lambe, Thomas, L. C. 1632. 
Lea, Thomas, L. C. 1763. 
Le Conte, Daniel, L. C. 1676. 
Lecount, Peter, L. C. 1800. 
Lecount, Peter. L. C. 1787. 
I^eCompte, James, L. C. 1687. 
Lee, Cuthbert, L. C, 1676. 
LeFebuce, Charles, L. C. 1687. 
Lello,Jas., L. C. 1655. 
Levy, Jonas. L. C. 1825. 
Linnaker, Samuel, L. C. 1630. 
Litherland, Peter, Liverpool, 1790. 
Locker, John, D. C. 1733. 
Loddington, Isaac, L C. 1725. 
Long, Henry, L. C. 1780. 
Long, John, L. C. 1677. 



Long, John, L, C. 169S. 
Loomes, Thomas, L. C. 1650, 
Lord, Richard, L. C. 1632. 
Lowndes, Jonathan, L. C. 1633, 
Lyons, Richard, L. C. 1675 

M 

Maberly,John, L. C. 1730 
Marchant, Samuel, L. C. 1698. 
Markwick, James, L, C. 1666. 
Marriott. John, L. C. 1791. 
Maisden,John, L. C. 1723 
Masters, James, L C. 1800 
Masterson, Richard, L. C. 1630. 
Mather, Francis, L. C. 1656, 
Matthews, William, L. C. 1761. 
Mattchet, John, L. C. 1656. 
Mattocks, John, L, C. 1785. 
McCabe, James, L. C. 1803. 
Meredith, Launcellott, L. C. 1656 
Merigeot,John, L. C. 1761. 
Merrill, Chas., L. C. ISOO. 
Merry, Chas., L. C. 1762. 
Metcalf, Geo. M., L. C. 1785. 
Merttius, Sir George, L. C. 1706. 
Midnall, John,t L. C. 1630. 
Miles, Sep., L. C. 1800. 
Million, William, L. C. 1671. 
Mitchell, Robert. L. C. 1760. 
Moodie, David, L. C 1656. 
Morgan, Richard, t L. C. 1630. 
Morgan, Thomas, L. C. 1645. 
Moss, Thomas, L. C. 1785. 
Moseley, Elinor, L. C. 1730. 
Mulford, John, L. C. 1742. 
Mudge, Thomas, L. C. 1738. 
Mottrani, John, L. C. 1790. 

N 

i'Jtethan, Henry, L. C. 1673. 
Newell, William, L. C. 1800. 
Newman, Robert, L. C. 1800. 
Newman, John, L. C. 1800. 
Newcomb, Joseph, L. C. 1800. 
Nicacius, John, L. C. 1642. 
Norris, Edward, L. C. 1680. 
Nourse, Thomas, L. C. 1761. 



Okeham, Edward,t L. C. 1680. 
Overzee, Gerard. L. C. 1678. 

tCharter member of the Clockmakers 
Companv. 



83'^ 



Watchmakers. 



Parkwick, James, L. C. 1690. 
Patmore, Peter, L. C. 1313. 
Pace, Thomas, L. C. 1634. 
Pattee, Thomas, L. C. 1800. 
Payne, Southern, L. C. 1762. 
Pearce, William, L, C. 1785. 
Peachy, Newman, L. C. 1760. 
Pennock, John, I^. C. 1650. 
Pepys, John, L. C. 1700. 
Perigal, Francis, L. C. 1748. 
Perig-al, F. S., Jr., L. C. 1785. 
Perry, J. A., L. C. 1841. 
Pettit, William, I.. C. 1632. 
Pitt, William, I>. C. 1780. 
Pitt, Thyar, I.. C. 1790. 
Pistor, Edward, L. C. 1790. 
Pistor, John, L. C. 1790. 
Planner, Thomas, L. C. 1701. 
Plumley, William, L. C. 1771. 
Plumley, William, Jr., L. C. 1793. 
Poole, Robert, L. C. 1773. 
Potter, Harry, L. C. 1787. 
Potter, James, L. C. 1800. 
Prigg, John, L. C. 1761. 
Proctor, William, L. C. 1800. 



Quare, Daniel, L. C. 1670. Born 
1632. Died 1724. 

R 

Ramsey, David, L. C. 1630. 
Ranier, John, L. C. 1785. 
Rawlins, James, L. C. 1785. 
Reead, Thomas,t I- C 1632. 
Reeve, Thomas, L. C. 1638. 
Reid, Thomas, L. C. 1775. Born 1748. 

Died 1834. 
Richards, Hugh, B. C. 1728. 
Richardson, John, L. C. 1800. 
Richardson, James, I-.. C. 1780. 
Rimbault, Paul, L. C. 1770. 
Rimbault, Stephen, L, C. 1800. 
Ringmader, Dublin, Ireland, 1792 
Rivers. David. L. C. 1773. 
Rivers, William, L. C. 1786. 
Robins, William, L. C. 1797. 
Robinson, Francis, L. C. 1717. 
Robinson, Robert, L. C. 1756. 
Robson, William, L. C. 1801. 
Rogers, Isaac, I>. C. 1776. 
Rogers, Thomas, L. C. 1810. 
Rogerson, AVilliam, L. C. 1760. 
Rooker, Richard, L. C. 1728. 



Roothwood, Robert,t L. C. 163J 
Russell, Nicasius, L. C 1680. 



Sadleir, Samuel, L. C. 171S. 
Sargeant, Nath. L. C 1775. 
Saunders, Daniel. L. C. 1632. 
Scafe, William, L. C. 1741. 
Sellars, John, L. C. 1686. 
Shaw, John, L. C. 1704. 
Shaw, Anna, Maria, L. C. 1738. 
Sharp, John, L. C. 1832. 
Shelton, John. L. C. 1760. 
Shelton, Thomas, L. C. 1830. 
Shelton, Sampson, t L. C. 1630. 
Shepheard, Thomas, L. C.f 1632. 
Sherwood, William. L. C. 1732. 
Side)', Benj., L. C. 1753. 
Silver, Fredk., I.. C. 1800. 
Sinderby, Francis, H., L. C. 1800. 
Skinner, Mathew, L. C. 1740. 
Smith, John,t L. C. 1630. 
Smith, Robert, I.. C. 1645. 
Smith, Susana, L. C. 1752. 
Snelling, James, L. C. 1728. 
Somersall, Richard, I.. C. 1785. 
Sowery, Andrew, L. C. 1676. 
Speakman, William, L. C. 1691. 
Speidell, Francis, L. C. 1669. 
Spencer & Perkins, L. C. 1790. 
Stafford, John, I.. C. 1733. 
Stanton, Edward, L. C. 1686. 
Stamper, Francis, L. C. 1682. 
Stephens, Joseph, L. C. 1744. 
Stephenson, Thos. S., L. C. 1800. 
Stevenson, Adam, L. C. 1785. 
Stones, Thomas, L. C. 1722. 
Storer, Robert, L. C. 1760. 
Street, Richard, L. C. 1710. 
Ssmidt, Gersen, L. C. 1630, 
Stubbs, Gabriell, L. C. 1675. 
Style, Nath., L. C. 1743. 
Styte, Richard, L. C. 1782. 
Swell, George, L. C. 1688. 



Tayler, Edward, L. C. 1800. 
Taylor. Geo., L. C. 1700. 
Taylor, Jasper, L. C, 1694. 
Taylor, Jasper, L. C. 1746. 
Taylor,John, L. C. 1702. 
Taylor, Samuel, L. C. 1799. 
Taylor, Thomas, L. C. 1703. 

t Charter member of the Clockmakers 
Company. 



Webster. 



338 



Thornton, Henry, L. C. 1699. 
Thwaites, John, L. C. 1785. 
Tompion, Thomas, L. C. 1671. 
Tomlinson, William, L. C. 1725. 
Townsend, Joseph, L. C. 1670. 
Trubshaw,John, L. C. 1709. 
Tutet, Edward, L. C. 1762. 

u 

Underwood, William, L. C. 1790. 
Upjohn, Francis, U C. 1785. 



V 



1800. 



Valentine, Chas. D. F., L. C. 
Vernon, Samuel, L. C. 1756. 
Vick, Richard, L. L. 1720. 
Viet, Chaude, L. C. 1700. 
Viet, Maria ne, L. C. 1720. 
Volant, Ely,t L. C. 1630. 
Voutrollier, James, fL. C. 1632. 
Vulliamy, Benj. Gray Justin, L, C. 1790. 
Vulliamj-, Benj. Lewis, L, C. 1809. 
Vulliamy, JustinTheo., L. C. 

w 

Walker,John,tL. C. 16.32. 
Ward, John, L. C. 1789. 
AVard, Thomas,+ L. C. 1632. 
Webster, Henry, L. C. 1709. 
Webster, Richard, L. C. 1800. 
Webster, Robert, L. C. 1695. 
Webster, Samuel, L. C. 1761. 



1810. 



Webster, William, I.. C, 1729. 
Weeks, Thomas, L. C. 1657. 
Wheeler, Thomas, L. C. 1655. 
Wheeler, Thomas, L. C. 1681. 
Whichcote, Samuel, L. C. 1741. 
Wickes.John, L. C. 1785. 
Williamson, Joseph, L. C. 1716. 
Willin, William, L. C. 1800. 
Willow, John, L. C. 1620. 
Wilson, James, L. C, 1740. 
Windmills, Jos. Jr., L. C. 1670, 
Windmills, Thos., L. C. 1711. 
Wontner, John, L. C. 1800. 
Wray, Hilton, L. C. 1777. 
Wrightson, Thomas, L. C. 
Wynn, Henry, L. C. 1680. 
Wyse,John, L. C. 1669. 
Wyse, John, L. C, 1710. 
Wyse, Joseph, L. C. 1687. 
Wyse, Luke, L. C. 1694, 
Wyse, Mark, L. C. 1719. 
Wyse. Peter, L. C. 1693. 
Wase, Richard, L. C. 1679, 
Wyse, Robert, L. C. 1695. 
Wyse, Thomas, L. C. 



1730. 



York, Thomas, L. C. 
Young, James, L. C. 



1686. 



1716. 
1785. 



t Charter member of the Clockmakers 
Company. 



WEBSTER, AMBROSE. Mr. Webster was born in Southbridge, 
Mass., July loth, 1832, and attended the common schools in that town 
until 1847, when he went to Springfield, Mass., attending the school 
there until 1849. 

He then commenced a four years' apprenticeship in the Springfield 
Armory, being the first apprentice taken after the Armory was under 
military rule, i. e, under superintendency of the ordinance department. 
After serving his apprenticeship, he worked on locomotives with Blan- 
chard & Kimball, locomotive builders. In 1853 and 1854 was on the 
Richmond & Danville Railroad as machinist and engineer. In 1855 he 
worked on the gun stocking machinery, built by Ames Manufacturing 
Company, Chicopee, that went to Enfield, England, arsenal. In 1857 he 
went to work for Appleton Tracy & Company, who were succeeded by 
the American Watch Company. Was appointed foreman of the machine 
shop of the American Watch Company in December, 1859, and master 
mechanic in 1862. In 1S75 was appointed assistant superintendent, 
retaining also the duties of master mechanic, which position he held 
until the spring of 1876, when he left the employment of the company 
and spent six months in a much needed rest, and in visiting the various 



339 Webster. 

watch and clock companies of the country, making a thorough study of 
their methods. In the spring of 1857, Mr. Webster was the only machin- 
ist regularly employed ten hours per day as a machinist and tool maker, 
in the watch and watch case industries of this country, and probably the 
only one in the world. During Mr. Webster's connection with the watch 
industry the business has increased until there are now 500 machinists 
connected with the various watch factories, from 200 to 250 connected 
with various watch case factories, and over 200 in the various watch tool 
factories. 

Under Mr. Webster's management, the machine shop of the American 
Watch Company developed into a force of 70 men, and the daily product 
of the company was increased from five watches per day to 350. When 
making five watches per day, if the ''Boston east winds" were strong, 
they were unable to turn out any, as the gilding operations could not be 
performed. In the fall of 1876 Mr. Webster entered the partnership of 
the American Watch Tool Company, taking its general management. 
At that time they were making about 50 lathes per 
year. They immediately commenced the erection 
of a factory building, and when completed, increased 
their force from six men to eighty, taking a large 
contract to equip an English watch factory, and in 
1878 commenced the work of equipping the Water- 
bury Watch Company. This establishment was 
planned, erected and equipped to make 1,000 watches 
Ambrose Webster, pgr day, by Mr. Webster and the American Watch 
Tool Company. While at Waterbury he formed the acquaintance of 
Mr. Woodruff, of the Seth Thomas Clock Company, and used his 
influence in inducing that company to commence the manufacture of 
watches, and subsequently built a large amount of machinery for them. 
When Mr. Doolittle organized the New Haven Watch Company, he 
used Mr. Webster's experience in the building of machinery, and subse- 
quently in the plan of their factory at Trenton, and equipping the same. 
The Cheshire Watch Company also called upon Mr. Webster for assist- 
ance in the same line, as did the Hampden Watch Company, in the erec- 
tion of their last building in Springfield. When Mr. Wendell organized 
the Aurora Watch Company, having been acquainted with Mr. Webster 
for some time, he consulted him in relation to the erection of a factory, 
and gave him large orders for its equipment. 

The American Watch Tool Company has, under his management, 
built machinery for all the American watch companies, and many 
foreign, until they have on their books, as customers, 25 watch com- 
panies, for whom they have turned out $300,000 worth of machinery 
and seven clock companies, for whom they have furnished machinery to 
the amount of $55,000. Probably no person in the world has had so 
intimate connection with the watch industry as Mr. Webster. He has 




Wheels and Pinions. 340 

among his correspondents nearly all the foreign watch companies, and 
probably no man is better known in connection with the watch industry 
than he. He has been frequently called upon to appraise watch fac- 
tories, plants, etc., and advise with the general managers regarding the 
development of their business. 

WHEELS AND PINIONS. In the construction of watches and 
clocks, it is necessary to transmit motion from one arbor to another, so 
that the arbor which is driven rotates more quickly than the one 
which drives it. If it were practicable to use rollers with smooth edges for 
transmitting such motion, the diameter of the rollers would be inverselj- 
proportionate to the number of rotations made by their arbors in a given 
time. For instance, the distance apart of two arbors from center to 
center measures 3.7 inches, and it is desired that for every time the 
arbor from which the power is taken rotates the other shall rotate eight 





Fig. 282. Fig. 283. 

times. The distance between the arbors is divided into nine equal parts, 
of which eight are taken for the radius of the driver, which rotates only 
once, and one part for the radius of the follower, as it is called, which 
rotates eight times. Although it is not practicable to drive with smooth 
rollers, which would slip unless pressed so tightly together as to cause 
excessive friction, the circles representing the rollers are the basis on 
which the wheel and pinion are constructed. They are called the pitch 
circles. The acting parts of the teeth of the driver is beyond its pitch 
circle, and the acting parts of the teeth of the follower within its pitch 
circte. In most of the toothed wheels with which watchmakers are con- 
cerned, the driver is the wheel and the follower the pinion. The shape 
for the acting part of the wheel is an epicycloid, a curve generated by 
rolling one circle on another. 

In Fig. 282 is shown a portion of a circle representing the pitch dia- 
meter of the wheel, and on it a smaller circle rolling in the direction of 
the arrow. If these two are made of brass, or any thin material, and laid 
on a sheet of paper, a pencil fixed to the circumference of the small roller 
will trace a curve as shown. This curve is the acting part of the wheel 
tooth. 



341 



Wheels and Pinions. 



The acting part of the pinion leaves must be produced by the same 
sized roller as was used for the points of the wheel teeth, but in a differ- 
ent manner. The pinion flanks should be hypocycloidal in form. A 
hjpocycloid is obtained by rolling one circle within another, instead of 
upon it. The most convenient size for the generating roller for both 
wheel and pinion is half the pitch diameter of the pinion. In Fig. 283 is 
a circle representing the pitch circle of the pinion, with another circle 
half its size rolling within it, and in this case the point described by the 
pencil would be a straight radial line, which is a suitable form for the 
pinion. 

Teeth formed in this way will transmit the motion uniformly at the 
same speed as though the pitch circles rolled on each other without 
teeth, and will also meet another important requirement. The action 
between the teeth will take place almost wholly after the line of centers 
that is if the pinion has not less than ten leaves. The difference between 





Fig. 284. 



Fig. 285. 



the engaging and disengaging friction is great, especially if the surfaces 
in contact are not quite smooth. Wheels which have any considerable 
portion of their action between the teeth as they are engaging, or before 
the line of centers, not only absorb considerable power thereby, but wear 
out rapidly. With a larger generating circle, more of the action between 
the teeth of the wheel and the leaves of the pinion would take place after 
the line of centers, which is a consideration with low numbered pinions, 
but then a larger generating circle traces a pinion leaf too weak at the 
root. 

The pitch circle of the wheel is spaced out so that the teeth and spaces 
are equal. To allow of necessary freedom, the teeth or leaves of the pin- 
ion are less in width than the spaces. The distance between the center 
of one leaf and the center of the Rext may be divided into .6 for space 
and .4 for leaf * 



♦The "pitch" of wheels and pinions is the portion of the circumference of the pitch 
circle between the center of one tooth and the center of the next. 



Wheels and Pinions. 342 

The pinion leaves are finished with a semi-circular piece projecting 
beyond the pitch circle, as seen in Fig. 284. The^' would work without 
if properly pitched, but would not be safe as the depth became shallow 
from the wearing of the holes. Some prefer a Gothic shaped projection 
like Fig. 285, which is of the epicycloidal form, the same as the wheel 
teeth. This is a very suitable form if the pinions are low numbered, for, 
although with it the action takes place more before the line of centers, a 
safer depth is insured. 

The teeth of the wheel are extended within the pitch line to allow of 
clearance for the addendum of the pinion. The root or part of wheel 
tooth within the pitch line is generally radial. 

The corners at the bottom of the tooth may be rounded for strength, but 
these round corners must not be so full as to engage the points of the 
pinion leaves. The action should be confined as nearly as possibly to 
the epicycloid on the wheel, and the hypocycloid on the pinion. In 
watches, the roots of all the wheels and pinions are left square, except 
the roots of the barrel, or great wheel teeth, and the roots of the cen- 
ter pinion leaves, which should always be rounded for strength. There 
is then less danger of the teeth stripping if the mainspring breaks. 

If the pinion is to be used as the driver and the wheel as the follower, 
as is the case in the motion work of watches and clocks, the points of 
the pinion teeth must be epicycloidal, and the roots of the wheel teeth 
hypocycloidal, struck with the same generating circle. For the conven- 
ience of using wheels and pinions indiscriminately as drivers and follow- 
ers, engineers generally use a generating circle whose diameter = the 
pitch X 2.22 for the points and roots of all wheels and pinions of the 
same pitch. The tip of the addendum is removed in both wheels and 
pinions. 

If more than two wheels gear together, the a.,ting parts of all should 
be struck from the same sized generating circle. The number of teeth 
in a wheel bears exactly the same proportion to the number of teeth in 
a pinion with which it gears, as the diameter of the pitch circles of the 
wheel and pinion bear to each other. If the pinion whose pitch circle 
is .8 of an inch in diameter has 10 teeth, then the wheel with a pitch cir- 
cle 6.4 inches in diameter will have 80 teeth, because .8 is contained 8 
times in 6.4, and 10 x 8 == 80. But the outside or full diameter of a 
wheel or pinion is not proportional to the pitch diameter. The adden- 
dum, or portion of the tooth beyond the acting part bears reference 
rather to the size of the generating circle and to the width of the teeth, 
than to the diameter of the wheel or pinion. 

Lantern pinions work very smoothly as followers, though they are 
unsuitable as drivers. The space occupied by the shrouds precludes their 
use in watches, but in the going parts of clocks they answer well. 

For the convenience of ready calculation, it may be assumed that the 
addendum of the wheel teeth increases the size of the wheel by three 



343 



Wheels and Pinions. 



teeth. For instance, the pitch diameter of a wheel of 80 teeth is 2 inches. 
Then its pitch diameter would bear the same proportion to its full dia- 
meter as 80 does to 83; or 80 : 2 : : 83 : 2.07, which is the full diameter. 

In the same way it may be taken that the circular addendum increases 
the size of the pinion by 1.25 teeth, and the epicycloidal addendum by 
1.98, or nearly 2 teeth. 

If the pinion is to be used as the driver, it must have the epicycloidal 
addenda to insure proper action. I believe an opinion prevails among 
some watchmakers that the circularly rounded pinions may be used as 




Fig. 286. 

drivers if they are sectored large, and they are so used for motion work, 
but such a practice is altogether wrong. 

In the motion work of keyless watches, the followers are used as 
drivers when the hands are being set, and a good form of tooth for 
motion work generally may be obtained by using for roots and points of 
both wheels and pinions a generating circle of a diameter equal to twice 
the pitch. This gives a short tooth which will run smoothly when at 
full width. The form of gearing suitable for the train permits of too 
much shake for motion work. 



Wheel Cutter. 



344 



WHEEL CUTTER. The wheel cutter is a valuable addition to the 
lathe. Several different styles of these tools are made, each possessing 
points of merit. They are designed for cutting all kinds of wheels and 
pinions used in key and stem- wind watches. When the cutter spindle is 
vertical the belt runs directly to it from the countershaft, but when hori- 
zontal the belt passes over idler pulleys held above the lathe. These 
idler pulleys are also used to run the pivot polisher. Fig. 286 illustrates 
the American Watch Tool Company's wheel cutter, while Fig. 287 is 
Moseley's pattern. 





Fig. 2i>7. 



Fig. 288. 



WHEEL VISE. Rose's patent wheel vise, shown in Fig. 288 is 
used for holding all kinds of watch wheels while undergoing repairs, 
such as putting in new teeth, removing rust from pinions, etc., and for 
holding balance wheels while putting in or removing the screws, taking 
the hair spring or collet from staff, or for any work where the safety of 
the wheel is involved. 

WIGWAG. The wigwag is used for polishing the shoulders of pin- 
ions, pinion leaves, staffs and pivots, and for numerous other operations. 
The formation of these tools differs according to the ideas of the various 
makers, but in principle they are alike. These tools are used exten- 
sively in all the American watch factories. 



INDEX. 



Abbey, 5 

Absolute time, 314 
Acceleration, 5 
Acids and salts, 6 

acetic, 6 
boric, 6 
chroniic/6 
hydrochloric, 7 
hydrofluoric, 7 
nitric, 7 
oxalic, 7 
prussic, 8 
sulphuric, 8 
tartaric, 8 
Adams, J. C, 6 
Addendum circle, 9 
Adhesion, 9 
Adjusting; rod, 9 
Adjustment, 9 

heater, 12 
to positions, 9 
to isochronism, 11 
Alarm, 13 
Alcohol cup, 13 
lamp, 13 
All or nothing piece, 13 
Alloy, non-magnetic, 15 

Bell metal, American, 15 
Japanese, 15 
Alloy, 13 

for clock bells, German, 15 
Swiss, 15 
French, 15 
clock wheels, 15 
compensation balances, 13 
composition files, 15 
gong-s and bells, 15 
knives and forks, 15 
opera glasses, 15 
spoons, 15 
tea pots, 15 

resembling silver, 15, 17 
Gold, 17 
Alum, 6 
Aluminium, 18 



Aluminium, alloys, 14 
baths, 149. 
bronze, 14 
gold, 14 
silver, 14 
solder, 299 
zinc, 17 
Amalgam, 18 
Ammonia, 6 

phosphate, 6 
Ammonium sulphide, 6 
Anchor escapement, 18 
Angular gearing, 21 
velocity, 21 
Annealing, 22 

steel. 306 
Annular gear, 22 
Anode, 22 

Antique silver, imitation of, 155 
Apparent time, 315 
Aqua regia, 6 
Arbor, 22 
Arc, 22 

Arcograph, 22 
Arnold, John, 22 
Artificial gold, 17 
Assay, 22 

Astronomical time, 315 
Auxiliary, 22 
Auxiliary balance, 25 
Backrest. 282 
Balance, 22 

arc, 35 

auxiliaries, 25 
bridge, 35 
compensation, 110 
protector, 36 
screw washers, 36 
sizes and weights of, 25 
spring, 37 
staff, 37 
to poise, 27 
Balances, expansion and contraction of, 

24. 
Banking, 41 



345 



346 



Banking^ error, 41 

pins, 42 t 

screw, 48 
Barleys, 42 
Barlow, Edward, 4i 
Bar movement, 42 
Barometric error, 42, 264 
Barrel, 43 
Barrel arbor, 43 

contractor, 43 
hook, 44 
ratchet, 44 
Bartlet, P. S., 44 
Bascule escapement, 44 
Baths, aluminium, 149 
brass, 149 
copper, 149 
g-old, 145 
silver, 147 
nickel, 148 
Battery, bunsen, 140 
carbon, 140 
couplingf, 142 
Daniel], 137 
g-ravity, 13S 
Smee, 140 
wire, 144 
Beat, 44 

block, 44 
pins, 44 
Bell metal, 15, 17 
Bench, 45 
Benzine, 46 
Berthoud, Ferdinand, 46 

Louis, 47 
Bevel gears, 47 
Bezel, 47 

chuck, 47 
Binding wire, 47 
Bite, 47 
Blower, 47 
Blow pipe, 47 

soldering, 300 
Bluestone, 48 
Bluing, 48 
Bluing pan, 48 
Bob, 49 

Boiling-out pan, 49 
Borax, 6 
Boric acid, 6 
Bort, 50 

Bottoming file, 50 
Bouchon, 50 
Bow, 50 

compasses, 50 
pen, 50 



Boxwood, 50 
Brass, 17, 51 

black bronze for, 152 
bronze, 153 
etching fluids for, 51 
gold yellow for, 51, 154 
grained surface on, 150 
gray stain for, 155 
green bronze for, 155 
lacquers for, 51, 52 
magic polish for, 51 
polishes, 51 

polishing paste for, 51, 89 
steel blue on, 157 
silvering for, 156 
to blacken, 52 
to clean, 86 
Breguet, A. L. 52 
Bridge, 52 
Brittania, 17 
Broach, 52 

Broaching a hole vertically, 53 
Broaches, to solder, 53 
Brocot suspension, 52 
Bronze, antique, 151 
blue, 152 
brown, 153. 
Chinese, 154 
for copper, 152 
steel, 310 
medals, 15, 153 
ornaments, 15 
steel, 153 
Japanese, 15 
liquid, 153 
manganese, 15 
Paris, 15 
Bronzing, 135 

fluid, 151 
Buff, 53 
Bullseye, 53 
Bunsen battery, 140 
Burnisher, 54 
Bush, 54 

Bushing pivot holes, 54 
punch, 55 
wheels, 55 
wire, 55 
Butting, 55 
Calipers, 56 

micrometer, 169 
Vernier, 175 
Callet, F., 56 
Cam, 56 
Cannon pinion, 56 

to tighten, L. 



347 



Cap, 57 

Capped jewel, 57 
Capillary attraction, 57 
repulsion. 57 
Carbon battery, 140 
Carborundum, 56 
Cardinal points, 57 
Caron, Peter A., 57 
Carrier, 57 
Case hardening, 57 
springs, 57 

springs, adjustable, 58 
spring vise, 58 
stake, 5S 
Cements, 58 
Cement, acid proof, 59. 
alabaster, 59 
amber, 59 
brasses, 61 
chucks; 61 
engravers', 60 
fire -proof, 60 
for metal plates, 59 
for glass and brass, 59 
for glass and metals, 59, 60 
for knife and fork handles, 59 
for paper and metals, 60 
gold and silver colored, 60 
jewelers, 60 
metal, 60 
transparent, 60 
watchmakers, 61 
Center of gravity, 64 
of gyration, 64 
of motion, 64 
of oscillation, 64 
punch, 64 
seconds, 66 
wheel, 66 
staff, 66 
Centers, 61 

female, 61 
male, 62 
Centering attachment, 62 
indicator, 63 
tool, 64 
Centrifugal force, 66 
Chain hook, 66 
Chalk, 67 
Chamfer, 67 
Chamfering tool, 67 
Chamois, 67 
Chimes, 68 
Chiming barrel, 68 
Chops, 68 
Chromic acid, 6 



Chronograph, 66 
Chronometer, 68 
Chronometer escapement, 63 

inungers, 75 
to examine, 75 
Chronoscope, 78 
Chrysorine, 17 
Chuck, 78 

adjustable, 78 

arbor, 80 

bezel, SO 

box, 85 

cement, 81 

conoidal, 81 

crown, 81 

dead center, 83 

drill, 82 

jeweling, 82 

pivoting, 82 

screw, 84 

shoulder, 84 

step or wheel, 84 

stepping device, 81 

taper, 85 
Circular error, 85 
Civil time, 315 
Clamps, 85 
Cleaning and repairing clocks, 101 

watches, 324 
Cleaning filigree, 295 

mainsprings, 240 
pendulums, 86 
pickling and polishing, 86 
silver, 86,295 
nickel, 86 
brass, 86 
Cleat, 90 

Clement, William, 90 
Clepsydra, 90 
Clerkenwell, 93 
Cliche,93 
Click, 93 

spring, 93 

to mount, 93 
Clocks, 94 
Clock, annual, 99 

astronomical, 99 

calendar, 100 

Canterbury Cathedral, 94 

carriage, 100 

Cathedral of Metz, 96 

chiming, 100 

cleaning, 101 

DeVick's, 96 

Dover Castle, 94 

electric, 100 



348 



Clock, equation, 100 

equatorial, 100 

Ferguson's, 99 

gravity, 183 

Japanese, 201 

locomotive, 100 

master , 100 

mysterv, 183 

Nuremburg-, 96 

pallets, 102 

pinions, 102 

pivots, 105 

pneumatic, 100 

repairing, 101 

repeating, 100 

Strasburg, 95 

striking work, 102 

watch, 100 

watchman's, 101 
Clockmakers' Company, 107 
'^lub tooth, 108 
:;iutch, 108 
Cock, 108 

Cole, James Ferguson, 108 
Collet, 109 

wrench, 100 
Colors of steel under heat, 309 
Compass, 109 
Compasses, 109 
Compensation, 109 

balance, 110 

alloy, 13 
curb, 111 
mercurial, 261 
pendulum. 111 
Concave, 111 
Contractor, barrel, 44 
Conversion table, 260 
Convex, 112 
Convexo-concave, 112 
convex, 112 
Conical pendulum. 111 

pivot, 111 
Contrate wheel, 111 
Conversion, 111 
Copper, 112 

brown stain for, 153 
silvering for, 156 
Corundum, 112 
Corundum wheels, 112 
Counter balance, 112 
Countermark, 112 
Countershaft, 112 
Countersink, 113 
Crank, 113 
Cremaillere, 113 



Crescent, 113 

Crocus, 114 

Crown-wheel, 114 

Crucible, 114 

Crutch, 114 

Crystal, 114 

Cumming, Alexander, 114 

Curb pins, 114 

Cusin, Charles, 115 

Custer, Jacob D., 114 

Cutter, wheel, 344 

Cycloid, 115 

Cyhnder escapement, 115 

action, 116 
proportion, 117 
examination, 118 

Cylinder gauge, 175 
plugs, 121 
to pivot, 270 

Daniel battery, 137 

Damaskeen, 121 

Day. 121 

solar, 122 
sidereal, 122 

Dead beat escapement, 122 

Dead luster, 146 

Decant, 122 

Demagnetizer, 123 

Demagnetizing, 235 

Denison, E. B,, 124 

Dennison, Aaron L., 124 

Dent, E. J., 125 

Dent on acceleration, 5 

Depth, 125 

Depthing tool, 125 

Derham, William, 126 

Detached escapement, 126 

Detent, 126 

De Vick, Henry, 126 

Dials, 126 

drilling, 127 
double sunk, 129 
removing name from, 127 
removing stains from, 127 
reducing diameter of, 127 
repairing of, 127 
cleaning, 128 
grinding backs of, 128 
luminous, 128 

Dialing, 128 

Dial work, 128 

Diamantine, 128 

Diamond drills, 128 

gravers, 128 
laps or mills, 128 
files, 129 



349 



Diamond powder, 129 

Dimensions of mainsprings, 239 

Dipleidoscope, 129 

Dissolving- soft solder, 299 

Dividing- plate, 129 

Doctoring-, 148 

Dog, 129 

Dog- screws, 129 

Double roller escapement, l"-i9 

Double sunk dia', 129 

Douzieme, 130, 168 

Draw, 130 

Draw plate, 130 

Drifting- tool, 130 

Drills, 130 

Drill rest, 131 
stock, 131 

Drilling lathe, 131 

Drop, 132 

Drum, 132 

Duplex escapement, 132 
hook, 134 
roller, 134 

Dust bands, 134 

Earnshaw, Thomas, 134 

East, Edward, 135 

Electricity, tempering by, 311 

Electroplating-, 135 

Electropoion fluid, 143 

Ellicott, John, 157 

Emery, 157 

countersinks, 158 
files, 158 
pencils, 158 
■wheels, 158 

End stone, 158 

Engine turning, 159 

Engraving blocks, 158 

Engraving on steel, 311 

Epicycloid, 159 

Equation of time, 159 

Equidistant lockings. 228 

Escapement, 159 

anchor, 18 
bascule, 44 
chronometer, 68 
Clement's, 19 
cylinder, 115 
dead beat, 122 
detached, 126 
double roller, 129, 224 
duplex, 132 
frictional, 164 
gravity, 184 
horizontal, 192 
lever, 216 



Escapement, resilient, 227, 28-J 
pin pallet, 265 
pin wheel, 267 
recoil, 276 
single beat, 296 
two pin. 226, 321 
verge, 322 
'- rticaJ, 32;3 
Escapemen error, 263 
Escaping arc, 160 
Escape pinion, 160 

wheel, clock, 104 
Eye glass, 160 
Facio, Nicholas, 160 
Ferguson, James, 160 
Ferric oxide, 88 
Fetil, Pierre, 162 
Fictitious silver, 17 
Files, 162 

composition, 14 
Filigree, to clean, 295 
Filing block, 162 

rest. 163 
Flux, 163 

soldering, 299 
Fly, 163 
Follower, 163 
Foot wheel, 163 
Forceps, soldering, 300 
Fourth wheel, 163 
French lines, table of 260 
Friction, 163 

Frictional escapements, 164 
Frodsham, Charles, 164 
Frosting, 165 
Full plate, 165 
Fusee, 165 

pivot, repairing, 165 
Galileo, 166 
Gas heater, 167 
Gathering pallet, 106 
Gauge, 167 

cylinder, 175 
Douzieme, 168 
micrometer, 169 
pinion and wire, 171 
registering, 172 
staff, 173 
twist drill, 175 
wire, 175 
Gerbert, 177 

German silver, to pickle, 87 
Gilding. 177 

steel, 150 
Glass polisher for steel, 311 
Goddard, Luther, 177 



350 



Going' barrel, 178 

fusee, 168 
Gold alloys, 178 

alloys, to pickle, 87 
artificial, 17 
baths, 145 
green, 146 
Nurnburg, 17 
recovering from baths, 150 
red, 146 
spring, 178 
Grained surface on brass, 150 
Graham, George, 178 

escapement, 179 
Graver, 181 
Gravity, 183 

battery, 138 
center of, 
clock, 183 
escapement, 184 
specific, 183 
Gravimeter, 183 
Great v^^heel, 184 
Grignion, Thomas, 184 
Grinder, traverse spindle, 320 
Grossman, Moritz, 185 
Guard pin, 185 
Gyrate, 185 
Gyration, center of, 64 
Hairspring, 185 

stud index, 186 
Half plate, 188 
Hall mark, 188 
Hand, 190 

remover, 190 
Hardening and tempering steel, 307, 309 
Hardening liquids, 310 
Hardening steel in petroleum, 310 
Harris, Richard, 190 
Harrison, John, 191 
Hautefeuille.John, 191 
Henlein, Peter, 191 
Hooke, Robert, 191 
Horizontal escapement, 192 
Horological books, 192 
Hour glass, 196 
wheel, 196 
Houriet, F., 196 
Howard, Edward, 196 
Huyghens, Christian, 197 

clock, 198 
Hydrochloric acid, 7 
Hydrofluoric acid, 7 
Hypocycloid, 199 
Ice box, 199 
Idler, 199 



Impulse pin, 200 

Independent seconds, 200 

Index, 200 

Inertia, 200 

Ingold fraise, 200 

Involute, 201 

Iron, gold bronze for, 154 

Isochronal, 201 

Jacob, M., on acceleration, 5 

Jacot pivot lathe, 201 

Janvier, Antide, 201 

Japanese clocks, 201 

Jerome, Chauncey, 203 

Jewel, 203 

capped, 57 
holder, 203 
pin, 207 

setter, 208 
Jeweling, 204 

tool, 294 
caliper rest, 206 
Jodin, Jean, 208 
Joint pusher, 208 
Jurgensen, Urban, 208 

Jules, 209 
Kendall, Larcum, 209 
Kullberg, Victor, 209 
Lacquer, 209 
Lange, Adolph, 210 
Lantern pinion, 210 
Lap, 210 

Lepaute, J. A., 215 
Lepine movement, 215 
Lathe, 210 

Barnes, 214 
care of, 212 
Hopkins, 212 
Jacot pivot, 201 
Moseley, 211 
Rivett, 213 

Webster- Whitcomb, 211 
Le Roy, Julien, 216 
Pierre, 216 
Lever escapement, 216 

faults, 232 
Lever, straight line, 311 
Lime, 89 

Vienna, 323 
Liquids, hardening, 310 
Lockings, equidistant, 828 
Locking, 233 
Magnesia calcine, 7 
Magnetism, 238 
Magnets to temper, 311 
Mainsprings, 236 

cleaning of, 240 



351 



!Mainsprings,clock, 107 

dimensions of, 239 
Mainspring punch, 240 

winder, 240 
Maintaining power, 243 
Malleable brass, 17 
Maltese cross, 243 
Mandrel, 243 
Manganese bronze, 15 
Mass, 243 
Material cup, 243 
Mat for steel, 307 
Matting, 244 

Mercurial compensation, 261 
Meridian dial, 244 
Metals to pickle, 86 
Micrometer, 244 

caliper, 169 
Millimeter, 244 
Millimeters, table of, 260 
Milling cutters, 244 
fixture, 244 
Miter gears, 245 
Motion, center of, 64 
Moinet, Lewis, 245 
Moment of elasticity, 245 
Moment of inertia, 245 
Momentum, 245 
Moseley, Charles S., 245 
Motel, H., 246 
Motion work, 246 
Movement, 246 

box, 246 

cover, 246 

holder, 247 

rest, 247 
Mudge, Thomas, 247 
Mystery clock, 183 
Nickel baths, 148 
Ts ickel plating without battery, 151 

by boiling, 151 
Nickel, to clean, 86 
Nitric acid, 7 
Non-magnetic alloy, 15 
Non-magnetic watch, 247 
Oil, 248 
•Oiler, 250 
Oil sink, 250 
Oil stones, 250 

circulur, 250 

dust, 251 
Old English watchmakers, 333 
Oreide, 15 

Oscillation, center of, 64 
Overbanking, 251 
Overcoil, 251 



Oxalic acid, 7 
Oxidizing silver, 155 
Pacificus, 251 
Pads, soldering, 300 
Parachute, 251 
Pallet. 251 

staff, 251 
stones, 251 
stone adjuster, 251 
Pallets, clock, 102 
Papers, watch, 332 
Peg wood, 251 

cutter, 46 ' 
Pendant, 252 

bow, 252 

bow tightener, 252 
bow drill, 252 
Pendule watches, 252 
Pendulum, 252 

compensation. 111 
compound, 2513 
conical. 111, 253 
error, 263 
laws of, 254 
length of, 258, 263 
oscillating, 253 
simple, 253 
spring, 264 

suspension spring, 107 
to clean, 86 
torsion, 254 
vibrations, 261 
Perron, M., 264 

Petroleum, hardening steel, 310 
Pickling of metals, 86 

German silver, 87 
gold alloys, 87 
Pillar, 264 

plate, 264 
Pinchback, 15 

Pinion, 264 

clock, 102 

grinder, 264 

lantern, 210 
Pinion and wire gauge, 171 
Pinions and wheels, 340 
Pin pallet escapement, 265 
Pin vise, 266 

Pin wheel escapement, 267 
Pins, steady, 306 
Pitkin, H.&J. F., 268 
Pivot, 269 

gauge, 271 
Pivots, clock, 105 

friction of, 270 

length of balance, 269 

play of, 269 



352 



Pivots, shape of, 270 

straightening, 270 
to polish, 40 
to turn, 40 
Pivoted detent, 274 
Pivoting cylinders, 270 
Plate, 274 

Plate, three-quarter, 314 
Pliers, watch bow, 331 
watch hand, 332 
Plunging, when hardening, 310 
Poising the balance, 27 

tool, 274 
Polisher, 271 

glass for steel. 311 ] 

Polishing, 274 

agents, 88 
pivots, 40 
Poole, John, 274 
Potassium, bicarbonate, 
'^itartrate, 7 
hydroxide, 7 
nitrate, 7 
sulphide, 7 
Potence, 274 
Potential energy, 274 
Pawder, Belgian, 89 

gold, 89 
Prince's metal, 15 
Prussic acid, 8 
Pump center, 275 
Punch, center, 64 
Push piece, 275 
Quare, Daniel, 275 
Quarter rack, 275 
Rack lever, 275 

tail. 107 
Ramsay, David, 275 
Ratchet, 275 

barrel, 44 
Rating nut, 275 
Raymond, B. W.,'275 
Recoil escapement, 276 
Red stuff, 276 
Registering gauge, 172 
Regnauld, 276 
Regulator, 276 
Reid, Thomas, 276 
Remontoire, 276 
Repair clamps, 276 
Repairing and cleaning watches, 324 
Repeater, 277 

gongs, 279 
Repeating attachments, 281 
rack, 282 
slide, 282 



Resilient escapements, 227, 282" 
Resistance unlocking, 322 
Rest, 282 
Ring gauge, 283 
Riveting stake, 283 
Robert, M. H., on acceleration, S 
Robin, Robert, 283 
Rocking bar, 283 
Roller remover, 283 
Romilly, M., 284 
Rose cutter, 284 
engine, 284 
Rouge, 285 

Rounding up attachment, 285 
Roy, Peter, 285 
Roze, A. C, 285 
Ruby pin, 285 

roller, 285 
Run, 106 

Rust, to protect steel from, 310 
to remove from steel, 309 
Safety pin, 285 

pinion, 286 
Sal-ammoniac, 8 
Sapphire file, 286 
Scratch brushing, 89 
Screw, 286 

broken, to remove,'286- 
driver, 287 
extractor, 288 
head cutter, 288 
left handed, 287 
plate, 290 
tap, 290 
Screws, timing, 316 
Seconds hand remover, 290 
setting, 290 
split, 304 
sunk, 312 
sweep, 312 
Sector, 293 
Shellac, 293 
Sherwood, N. B„ 293 
Sidereal clock, 293 
day, 294 
time, 315 
Silver, 294 

assay, 294 

balh, 147 

cleaning, 295 

distinguishing genuine, 294 

frosting, 295 

gold tinge to, 154 

oxidizing, 156 

paste, S9 

plating without battery, 156 



353 



Silver, recovering- from bath, 150 
separating, HM 
soap, 89 
to clean, 86 
Silvering for brass or copper, 156 

iron articles, 156 
Single beat escapement, 296 
Sizes of mainsprings, 239 
Sizes of watch movements, 331 
Skive, 296 
Slide rest, 296 
Smee battery, 140 
Snail, 297 
Snailing, 297 
Snap, 297 
Snarl, 297 
Snarling iron, 297 
Sodium bicarbonate, 8 
hydroxide, 8 
phosphate, 8 
pyrophosphate, 8 
Solar time, 316 
Solders, 297 
Solder aluminium, 299 
gold, 298 
hard, 297 
silver, 298 
soft, 15, 29S 
to dissolve soft, 299 
Soldering, 297 

blow^pipe, 300 
fluxes, 299 
forceps, 300 
pads. 300 

stone set rings, 299 
tweezers, 321 
Specific gravity, 183, 303 
Spectacle tool, 303 
Split seconds, 304 
Sprung over, 304 
Square root, to extract, 256 
Staff, 304 

balance, to make, 37 
gauge, 173 
Stain, black, for guns, 152 

brown, for guns, 154 
Staining, 135 
Stake, 304 
Staking tool, 305 

and anvil, 305 
Star wheel, 306 
Steady pins, 306 
Steel, 306 

articles to temper, 310 
colors of under heat, 309 
engraving on, 311 



Steel, glass polisher for, 311 

hardening and tempering, 307 

mat for, 307 

to anneal, 306 

to bronze, 310 

to gild, 150 

to harden in petroleum. 310 

to protect from rust, 310 

to remove rust from, 309 

to temper, 309 

Stepping device, 81 

Stogden, Matthew, 311 

Stop work, 311 

Straight line lever, 811 

Striking work, clock, 105 

Stud, 312 

Sully, Henry, 312 

Sulphuric acid, 8 

Sunk seconds, 312 

Surprise piece, 312 

Sweep seconds, 312 

Table, 312 

Tail stock, 313 

half open, 313 

screw, 313 

traverse spindle, 313 

Tavan, Antoine, 313 

Tavernier, Louis, 313 

Temperature error, 263 

Tempering and hardening steel, 307 

Tempering by electricity, 311 

Tempering magnets, 311 

Testing needles, 313 

Tempering steel, 308 

articles, 310 

Third wheel, 314 

Thiout, M., 314 

Thomas, Seth, 314 

Three-quarter plate, 314 

Timing screws, 316 

Tin putty, 89 

Time, 314 

absolute, 314 
apparent, 315 
astronomical, 315 
civil, 315 
sidereal, 315 
solar, 316 

Tompion, Thomas, 316 

Touchstone, 316 

Tourbillon, 317 

Train, 317 

Transit instrument, 317 

Traverse spindle grinder, 330 

Tripoli, 89 

Turns, 320 



354 



Tweezers, 320 

soldering, 321 
Two-pin escapement, 226, 321 
Universal head, 321 
Unlocking- resistance, 322 
Verge escapement, 3'22 
Vernier caliper, 175 
Vertical escapement, 323 
Vienna lime, 323 
Villareau, M., on acceleration, 5 
Vise wheel, 341 
Vulliamy, Benj. Lewis, 324 
Watch bow pliers. 331 
AVatch case tool, 331 
Watch, 324 

cleaning and repairing, 324 



Watch hand pliers, 332 
Watch movements, sizes of, 331 
Watchmakers, old English, 333 
Watchman's clock, 101 
AVatch papers, 332 
Webster, Ambrose, 338 
Wheels and pinions, 340 
Wheel cutter, 344 
Wheel, foot, 163 

fourth, 163 
Wheel star, 306 
Wheel, third, 314 
Wheel vise, 344 
White metal, 15 
Wig-wag, 344 
Wire gavxges, 170 



DIAMOHD 

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ 

MRe THe eesT 

ulJV^l> ir^ ^iJjB SOLE IMPOMTEBS, 



EVERY PACKAGE BEARS OUR REGISTERED TRADE MARK. 
FOR t^^«^ ^^^ 

WflTCHEJ"^^^^ WflTCMES 

Our claim that they are the BEST has been endorsed bj the highest 
authority in America. 

We keep constantly on hand the largest and most complete stock of 
Tools, Materials and Jewelers' Supplies to be found in this 
country. 

WZatches, Diamonds, SilMer-vware, Tools, 
Materials and Optical &oods. 

BENJ. ALLEN & CO., 

Vestern Agents for the E. Ingrabam Co, Clocks, 
14f-143 State St., CHICAGO. 



GOLDSMITH BROS. 



OLD GOLD 

AND 

SILVER BOUGHT 




PLATED JEWELRY 

AND 

SWEEPINGS BOUGHT 



63 Washington St., Chicago. 

OUR motto: 

'' HONEST AND PROMPT RETURNS." 

OUR plan: 

" Immediately on receipt of shipment we will remit cash 
or draft, and if same is not satisfactory, we will return 
consignment in same condition as received and pay all 
charges." 

Free on application, onr book showing How to Test and Bny Gold. 
A TEW EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS. 

St. Cloud, Minn. 

Gents ; — Your check for $ 1 2.00 is very 
satisfactory. More than we expected 
to get. Many thanks. 

Respectfully, 
GEO. R. CLARK & CO. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 
Gents: — Your favor of yesterday» 
enclosinar check for $205.80 at hanHf 
which is very satisfactory. 

Yours truly, 
C. PREUSSER JEWELRY CO, 



Richmond, Va. 
Gents: — Yours of 19th just received. 
Amount ($31.64) is perfectly satisfac- 
tory. E. A. SPOTT. 

Cleveland, Ohio. 

Gents: — Check for $405.82 received; 
accept our compliments for satisfactory 
returns, tog-ether with your promptness 

The ph. MILES JEWELRY CO. 



Ii>eorporated i 888. 



I^(^or<5apiz^d i 890. 



Chicago College of Horology, 

THE OLDEST RELIABLE SCHOOL IN AMERICA, 

"Wliere a thorough course of Watchwork and. Engraving, with kindred 

branches, is thoroughly taught. Equipment of Tools and 

Appliances the best that money will buy. 

Write for Prospectus and Terms. 



NOTICE. If you are desirous of learning watch-work and engraving, so you 
can fill any position and earn a large salary, we can guarantee you the above named 
knowledge at this institution, and challenge any school in America to produce 
better educated students in watch-work and engraving, or more thorough and rapid 
workmen in the same time that we do. The success of students after taking a 
course at this College is undeniable evidence that we give superior instruction. 
Our tuition is more reasonable than the cheapest schools. 



O. R. HART, Superintendent. 

COB. ROBEY AND 3IAI>ISON 8TBEBTS, 



MtSi^ 




)igS 



L. H. KELLER &, CO. 

IMPORTERS OF 

"Watchmakers' and Jewelers' 



TOOLS and MATERIALS 



OUR specialties: 

HE WELL KNOWN AND GUARANTEED 

' {Pt^> Lepiime Main Springs 

(OUR OWN) 

SOLD BOTH IN SEPERATE FOBC£B 
AND ASSORTED STRENGTHS. 

AND THE 



■3m^ Amen 





THE BEST ARTICLE OP THE KIND IN THE MARKET 
ELASTICITY AND BUT LITTLE BREAKAGE GUARANTEED. 

* A PLEASURE TO USE THEM. 

THE JURGENSEN RECOILING MAIN SPRINGS. 

For High Grades of Watches, i 



KEBIOS WATCH and CLOCK OILS 

The Fiaest Lokricator for all Climates. 



Rut)j Balance Jewels witii Olive-Shaped Boles 

Sold both by number of hole and diameter of jevol. 



We Solicit a Share of Tour Patronage. Special Attention 
given to Small Mail Orders. 

L. H. Keller & Co. 



Near MAIDEN LANE 



64 NASSAU ST., NEW YORK. 



O. W. Bullock & Co. 

Manufacturers of a Large liiue of 

Watchmakers' and Jewelers' Extra 
Fine Hand and Bench Tools. 



EVERY PROGRESSIVE WATCHMAKER USES 

THEM WE SELL GOODS OF OUR OWN 

MANUFACTURE ONLY 



Please send four cents in stamps and business card for our 
new illustrated catalogue. 

1 CHICIIGO WHTCHMIlKfBS' USTITUTE, 



*^/^ 



OPTICS 



A Modern] Trade 

: School. : 
Best in America. 



■^^^'v^ 




Scientific and Prac- 

: ticalin : 
All its Methods. 



CDParsonsPrincipl 



Teaches fatclmaMns anl Repairiiig, 

Jewelry Work ani Ensraviiii, anfl 

Giyes a Tlioroiijli Course in Optics. 

Call and see Our School and its work, or send for Catalogue. 
CIEO. J). PARSONS, Principal. 

1521 .22 -23 MASONIC TEMPIiE- 




ONE OF THE BEST OF THE VERY BEST! 

Quality is the Standard of Value for whicli We Compete ! 

1492 X89SE 

AND THE MOSELEY NO. 2. 



Learn all you can about the Moseley Lathe. 



A Bread-winner for the Watchmaker. 



ACCURi%.CY, DURABILITY, 

CAPACITY, SOIilDITY, 

COXVEXIE]VCE, STYIiE. 

When interested write your Jobber or the Manufacturers, 

MOSELiEY & COMPAIVY, Elgin, 111 







OOIiUMBIA'S JEWELS. 



MELOTTE'S 
REYOLVISG 




Combination 
Bench IBlock. 



Patented Sept. 13, 1892. 



Hub Easily 

Detached from 

Bracket. 



No. 1 is a nicely'fin- 
ished case hardened 
Steel 'Anvil, which may be 
INSTANTLY revolved and 
stopped on quarters. In any 
of the positions it is firm and solid for use. No. 2 is a Rubber Block, held by friction 
on its arm, and can be readily turned to any position. No. 3 is a Wooden Block, held 
on its arm by a spring friction device, which also allows it to be turned around to any 
position desired. The three-armed hub is revolved by puUiBg out slightly, and is auto- 
matically held perfectly firm and solid in any of the three positions. 

Retail Price, Complete S3.00 

Duplicate Parts: 

Brackets, each $ .50 Rubber Blocks, each $ .35 

Anvils " i.oo Wooden " " 15 



To be had through the Trade. 



O, W. MEIiOTTE & CO., Ithaca, X. Y. 



The Rivett Lathe and Staking Tool. 

The ''RIYETT'^ is the embodiment of 
modern mechanical perfection, and is 
recognized as such by fine mechanics. 
The attachments are covered by several 
valuable patents, and practical watch- 
makers who need a tool of this kind 
should not fail to investigate. Send for 
catalogue, new price list and list of job- 
bers who keep our lathe. 

FANEUIL WATCH TOOL CO., 



BOSTON. 



MASS. 



DALE 
CHUCKS 



FOR ANY 



LPCTHe* 



24. 



DALE 
CHUCKS 

ALL KINDS 



1, 


\ 


\ 


1 TRUE, HARD 


WhitcombNo. 1, 
WWtcombNo. IK, 


l^H AND 

1 PERFECT- FITTISG 


Whitcomb No. 2. 
Webster-Wbitcomb, j 


1 Wire, 


Moseley No. 1, 

Moseley No. 1x2, 

Moseley 

Hopkins, 

Rivett, 


: ' 




'^ 


1 Wheel, 
■ Sere^v, 
1 Cro^vn, 


Kearney or 
Kearney & 

Swartchild, | 
Triumph, ^ 


1 


1 
t 


^^= 


1 Taper, 
Br Arbor, 


Geneva. l^^^^^^^^^K 


$1.00 ^^Wm ^^'^^ 


ej^cM- ^M 


^^1 


^K eTtCH. 


II^^S 



MADE ONLY BY THE 



HOROLOGICAL TOOL CO., 

Manufacturers of Watchmakers' Tools and Machinery, 

CliLicagro, 111, 



OFFICE: 86 N. Clark St., 
FACTORY : 1036 Lincoln Av 



GO TO HEADQUARTERS ^EVERY&TIHIE. 

It is Best for ITourself and Prevents Delays! 
• • • • 

H„H. KAYTON, 

82 Nassau St., - - New York. 

IS HEADQUARTERS FOR 

Watch Materials, 
Tools, Optical Goods, Etc. 



Experienced and Practical Men in Charge of tlie 
Various Departments. 



ORDERS FILLED PROMPTLY. KG UNNECESSARY DELAY. 



OUR motto: 

Tlie Best Goods at I^owest Prices they can be 

furnished for. 



Mail Orders Solicited 



and Filled by any Catalogue. 



Remember the Address, 

H. H. KAYTON, 

82 Nassau St., - NEW YORK. 



- KNOWN : AS : THE : BEST - 



HUTOHINSOrSL'S 

[a portCj Ipd. 

Famous for its Perfect Work and Thorough Instruction. 

DO YOU WANT TO BE A WATCHMAKER? 

If so, jou can acquire a more thorough knowledge of everything per 
taining to watchmaking in less time and at less expense at this schoo 
than at any other place in the world. 




Our tuition is lower than any other school, and includes 

WATCHWORK, 

ENGRAVING, OPTICS and 

JEWELRY WORK, 

without any extra charge. Cost of living is less than in any other city 
•where similar schools are located. No vacations. Students received at 
any time. For catalogues and other information address 

J. L. HUTCHINSON, Supt. 

LA PORTE, IND. 



D. G. PERGIVAL & GO. 



WHOLESALE DEALERS IN 



f atctes, DiaiBoMs M Jewelry, Tools anfl Materials, 



OPTICAL GOODS, ETC. 



Rogers & Brother Silver Plated Flat Ware. 



'Se'w £nglancl Agents for 



THE A. f. TOWLE & SON GO.'S GOODS. 



392 WASHINGTON STREET, 



BOSTON. 




Plain and Fancy Dials, overg^laze and underglaze. 
Flowers and Landscapes. 

Photographs burnt in. 

Names, Emblems, "jTrademarks and Monograms. 

Gold, Silver, Platinum, and Jewels, inlaid in enamel. 
Raised figure dials for the blind. 

Calendar, Double Time and Twenty-Four Hour Dials. 

Secret Name Dials, letters invisible to the naked eye. 
Dials for Meters, Gaug^es and Indicators. 

Portraits on Watch Cases. 



(iickaufStohouse^ 




:«^«s-^<S^tu- '.^ ^v- 



•^ 



T T T > T . 



lTCH TWATERIALTOOn^ 

^f\m\ ^ifH% 4^\{m$, 4^\mm. %% 
84 X BE SiaiE SL 

The principal points to be considered are: 

NOT WHERE YOU CAN BUY THE CHEAPEST, 



leTTT. 



Where you can Buy the Best Quality of 
Goods at the Lowest Prices. 



Our record in the past is an evidence that we have not, and never 
will, sell any but the Best Quality of Goods at the Lowest 
Possible Price. Our reputation has been established on this basis, 
and we intend to pursue the same methods in the future. "We are now 
recognized by the country as the 

ONLY RELIABLE WHOLESALE JEWELERS' DEPOT. 

Below will be found a fac simile of our G. & N. Gravier Main 
Springs, of which we are the sole owners. 



1 


Doz. 


American 


Mainsprings 


Walth. 18s. 


N. M. Hunting. 


Glickauf 


& Newhouse, 


Ch 


ieago. 


^ # C?^ J^^iZ^^€^. 



GLICKAUF & NEWHOUSE, 

84 &, 86 STATE Street, CHICAGO. 



THE OLDEST AND BEST. 



m 




REMOVED FROM LA PORTE, IND., TO 

TEORIfl, ILL. 



Write for Catalogue and Particulars. 

PARSONS, IDE & CO., 117 FREDOSIA AVENUE, PEORIA, ILLINOIS. 





GUARANTEED 

-PLATE mn 




WATERBURXCONN. 

MADE IN SEVERAL PATTERNS, COMPRISING 

Tea, Table, Dessert and After-Dinner Coffee Spooon, Forks, Knives 

a.an.d. ^"s^x^a-y IPieces. 

HRnWN HA Mil TflN Si'ver Plate is superior, in all respects, to any wares 
UIIUIII1 IIMlfllL I U II heretofore manufactured in the United States or 
H^urope. On y the finest and heaviest Sterling Silver is its equal. Illustrated cir- 
culars furnished to the trade. 

THE ROOERIS & HAMILTO]!^ CO., 

CHICAGO STORE: 110 AND 112 WABASH AVENUE. 



iMlPRotfED PiVof Polishers 



I.A.TEST, NIMPIiEST, BEST. 





ij^^g^ 



CHN BE CHHNGED FROM 
HAND REST TO SLIDE 
REST OR YICE VERSSIN 
FI¥E SECONDS. 




Cutters and Laps^ 



This machine is made to fit all makes of slide and hard rests now 
in the market, and will be found the 

Quickest, Cheapest and Best Device 

for milling, damaskeening, snailing, spotting, drilling and recessing 
for jewel screw-heads, etc., as it has fewer parts and is more readilj' 
and perfectly adjusted than any other, thus permitting MORE WORK 
to be accomplished in a BETTER MANNER than by any other 
means. 

We are also manufacturing a large number of other tools for watch- 
makers, all of which are made in strict accordance with the best 
mechanical principles, and are 
1JX£qUALIiED IX THEIR PERFECTIOX OF FITTIJWG, 
FINISH A]M> QUAI.ITY OF MATERIAIi. 

Send for our Catalogue. It will save you money. 



A. W. JOHANSON, 

a«G l¥ELL.l^ STREET, CUK AOO. 



ELECTRO PLATING OUTFITS 



FOR 



GOLD, SILVER, NICKEL, COPPER, Etc. 




WE FURNISH COMPLETE OUTFITS FOR 





g, roiisiiiiij, imng, irDisiii 

i^EKD FOR I£,IiUSTRATFD CATAIiOGUE 



^' 



Dynamos, 
Batteries, 

Polishing loathes. 
Felt Wheels, 
Cotton Buffs, 
Vienna liime. 
Burnishers, 
Walrus, 
Liacquer, 



Cyanide Potassium, 
Gold Rouge, 
Gold (Solution, 
ISilver Solution, 
Nickel i$olution, 
Copper Solution, 
Anodes, 
Tripoli, 
Crocus. 



THE HANSON & VAN WINKLE CO. 

MANUFACTORY AND OFFICES: 

219 & 221 MARKET STREET, . NEWARK, N. J., U. S. A. 

New York Office: 81 Liberty Street. 

Western Branch: 35 and 37 S. Canal Street, Chicago. ' 



The Largest Manufacturers of Electro-Plating and Polishing 
Material and Apparatus. 



We Make a Specialty of Dies and Tools for Jewelers, Etc. 



C. H. STOELTING MFG. CO. 

Successors to C. H. STOELTINGJ, 

]Vlanut'acliir<-rs of 

Metal and Electric Specialties 



/ / 



w^ 









^ milllM ^ 






Xn?^P^ 



^> 




^/^^'*-^ 



•l'^\ 



*«QE/1R WHEELS. 1^ 

Gear Cutting, Milling Work. 

Screw Machine Work, Press Work, 

Brass Patterns, Dies, Tools, Etc. 

Spring Motors made to order. 



We carry the largest stock of Brass Gears in the West. 

Cut, Brass, Spur, Mitre, Bevel and Internal Gears, Ratchets 

and Racks of standard sizes and pitches. Special sizes. 

Spiral and Worm Gears cut to order. Thin sheet 

Brass Gears for Clock Work. Special 

low prices on gears in large quantities. 

Send for Catalogue. 



63, 64, 66 S. Canal St. 



CHICAGO, ILL. 



L LELONG & BROTHER. 

Gold and Silver Refiners, Assayers and 

SWEEP SMELTERS 







i ; -r-'jg'.^^ '^t^^ 




South West Corner Halsey & Marshall Streets, 
NEWARK, N.J. 

GILES, BRO. & CO. 

M WriOLESALE JEWELERS. ^ 

Watclies and Watch Materials, 

TOOLS AND OPTICAL GOODS. 
nflSONIQ TEfirLE. - - CHICflQO. ILL. 



++++++++ 



We have been established in Chicago since 1858 
and can offer inducements second to no house. 



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